Unit 2: Age of Reformation

anticlericalism

Opposition to the clergy, especially their influence and privileges.

pluralism

The practice of holding multiple church offices at once.

absenteeism

When church officials neglected their duties by being absent from their positions.

Martin Luther

A German monk, theologian, and professor (1483-1546).

indulgences

Documents sold by the Catholic Church that granted remission of penalties for sin.

the Ninety-Five Theses

A document written by Martin Luther in 1517.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of much of Europe (1500-1558).

sola fide

A central Protestant doctrine meaning 'faith alone.'

sola scriptura

A Protestant doctrine meaning 'scripture alone.'

Ulrich Zwingli

A Swiss reformer (1484-1531).

debates over Eucharist ideas

The disagreements among Protestants and Catholics about the nature of the Lord's Supper.

appeal of Protestant ideas

The reasons why many Europeans supported the Reformation.

Protestant ideas

They offered spiritual equality, criticized church corruption, encouraged Bible reading, and gave rulers a way to assert independence from Rome.

Luther's German Bible

A translation of the Bible into German by Martin Luther.

Impact of Luther's German Bible

It made scripture accessible to ordinary people in their own language.

Importance of Luther's German Bible

It spread literacy, strengthened Protestant belief in sola scriptura, and influenced the development of the German language.

Anabaptists

A radical Protestant group of the 16th century.

Actions of the Anabaptists

They rejected infant baptism, promoted separation from state authority, and emphasized simple communal living.

Importance of the Anabaptists

They were persecuted by both Catholics and Protestants, but their ideas influenced later groups like Baptists, Quakers, and Mennonites.

German Peasants' War

A massive revolt in the Holy Roman Empire (1524-1525).

Impact of the German Peasants' War

It combined economic grievances with religious demands inspired by Protestant ideas.

Importance of the German Peasants' War

Its brutal suppression by nobles and Luther's condemnation of the revolt showed the limits of Reformation social change.

Protestant ideas about marriage

Teachings from Reformers on the role of marriage in Christian life.

Impact of Protestant ideas about marriage

They rejected clerical celibacy, promoted marriage as a partnership for companionship and child-rearing, and allowed divorce under certain conditions.

Importance of Protestant ideas about marriage

They reshaped family life, elevated the role of women as mothers and wives, and distinguished Protestant societies from Catholic ones.

Divorce

The legal dissolution of marriage, largely opposed by the Catholic Church.

Impact of divorce

It became more acceptable in Protestant regions, where reformers allowed it in cases of adultery, abandonment, or failure of duty.

Importance of divorce

It reflected Protestant rejection of marriage as a sacrament and highlighted differences between Protestant and Catholic views of family life.

War in Switzerland

A series of conflicts between Protestant and Catholic cantons in the 16th century.

Impact of the war in Switzerland

It resulted in the death of Ulrich Zwingli in 1531 and ended with a treaty allowing each canton to determine its own religion.

Importance of the war in Switzerland

It showed the violent religious divisions of the Reformation and set a precedent for localized religious choice.

Augsburg Confession

The official statement of Lutheran beliefs, presented in 1530.

Impact of the Augsburg Confession

It outlined Lutheran theology and attempted, unsuccessfully, to reconcile with the Catholic Church.

Importance of the Augsburg Confession

It became the foundational document of Lutheranism and shaped Protestant identity in the Holy Roman Empire.

Peace of Augsburg

A 1555 treaty between Charles V and Protestant princes.

Impact of the Peace of Augsburg

It established the principle cuius regio, eius religio, allowing rulers to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories.

Importance of the Peace of Augsburg

It ended religious war in the empire temporarily but left out Calvinists and other reformers, ensuring continued conflict.

Reformation in Scandinavia

The spread of Protestantism into Denmark, Sweden, and Norway during the 16th century.

Impact of the Reformation in Scandinavia

Monarchs like Christian III of Denmark and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden adopted Lutheranism, consolidating royal power by seizing church lands.

Importance of the Reformation in Scandinavia

It strengthened centralized monarchies and spread Lutheranism beyond the Holy Roman Empire.

Christian III of Denmark

A monarch who adopted Lutheranism, consolidating royal power by seizing church lands.

Gustavus Vasa of Sweden

A monarch who adopted Lutheranism, consolidating royal power by seizing church lands.

Henry VIII

The Tudor king of England (r. 1509-1547).

Henry VIII's actions

He broke from the Catholic Church after being denied an annulment, creating the Church of England with the king as its head.

Importance of Henry VIII

His actions initiated the English Reformation, permanently changing England's religious and political structure.

Act of Supremacy

A 1534 law passed by the English Parliament.

What the Act of Supremacy did

It declared the monarch the 'Supreme Head' of the Church of England, formally breaking with Rome.

Importance of the Act of Supremacy

It marked the official creation of the Anglican Church and tied religious authority to the English monarchy.

Thomas Cromwell

A key advisor to Henry VIII and chief minister.

What Thomas Cromwell did

He oversaw the dissolution of monasteries, streamlined royal administration, and strengthened the crown's control over the church.

Importance of Thomas Cromwell

His reforms expanded the power of the Tudor state and helped establish England as a stronger centralized monarchy.

Catholicism in Ireland

The continuation of loyalty to Rome in Ireland during and after the English Reformation.

What Catholicism in Ireland did

It resisted the imposition of Anglicanism by the English crown, maintaining mass allegiance to the Catholic Church.

Importance of Catholicism in Ireland

It became a cornerstone of Irish national identity and a lasting source of conflict with Protestant England.

Book of Common Prayer

A liturgical text first issued in England in 1549 under Edward VI.

What the Book of Common Prayer did

It provided standardized prayers and services for the Church of England, blending Protestant and Catholic traditions.

Importance of the Book of Common Prayer

It shaped English religious life and remains a foundational text of Anglican worship.

Elizabeth I

The Protestant queen of England (r. 1558-1603).

What Elizabeth I did

She established a moderate religious settlement that combined Protestant doctrine with traditional rituals, strengthening national unity.

Importance of Elizabeth I

Her reign brought relative religious stability and positioned England as a major European power.

Spanish Armada

A fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England.

What the Spanish Armada did

It attempted to overthrow Elizabeth I and restore Catholicism but was defeated by English forces and poor weather.

Importance of the Spanish Armada

Its failure preserved Protestant England and marked the decline of Spanish naval dominance.

Act of Uniformity

An English law passed in 1559 under Elizabeth I.

What the Act of Uniformity did

It required all English subjects to attend Anglican services and use the Book of Common Prayer.

Importance of the Act of Uniformity

It reinforced Elizabeth's religious settlement and suppressed dissent from both Catholics and Puritans.

Pirates

Sailors who attacked ships and settlements for personal or national gain.

What pirates did

Many, known as 'privateers,' operated with government support, raiding Spanish treasure fleets in the Americas.

Importance of pirates

They undermined Spanish dominance, enriched rival nations like England, and contributed to maritime warfare.

John Calvin

A French Protestant theologian and reformer (1509-1564).

What John Calvin did

He established a strict religious community in Geneva and emphasized doctrines such as predestination.

Importance of John Calvin

His teachings spread across Europe, shaping Reformed churches and influencing later Protestant movements like Puritanism.

Geneva

A Swiss city that became the center of Calvinist reform in the 16th century.

What did Geneva do?

It adopted Calvin's religious laws, enforced moral discipline, and trained missionaries to spread Reformed Christianity.

Why is Geneva important?

It served as a model of Calvinist theocracy and became a hub for Protestant influence throughout Europe.

Impact of Calvinism on Presbyterians, Huguenots, and Puritans

The spread of Calvin's teachings into Scotland, France, and England.

What did the impact of Calvinism on Presbyterians, Huguenots, and Puritans do?

It created distinct Protestant movements: Presbyterianism in Scotland under John Knox, French Huguenots who challenged Catholic monarchy, and English Puritans who sought to purify the Church of England.

Why is the impact of Calvinism on Presbyterians, Huguenots, and Puritans important?

These groups carried Calvinist theology into national politics, fueling religious wars, reform movements, and even colonization efforts.

Predestination

A Calvinist doctrine concerning salvation.

What did predestination do?

It taught that God had chosen some people for salvation and others for damnation, independent of human actions.

Why is predestination important?

It distinguished Calvinism from other forms of Protestantism and gave followers a sense of spiritual certainty and discipline.

John Knox

A Scottish reformer and disciple of John Calvin.

What did John Knox do?

He brought Calvinist ideas to Scotland, established the Presbyterian Church, and opposed Catholic rule under Mary, Queen of Scots.

Why is John Knox important?

His leadership ensured Calvinism became dominant in Scotland, shaping its religious and political identity.

Reformation in Poland

The spread of Protestant ideas into Poland during the 16th century.

What did the Reformation in Poland do?

Lutheranism and Calvinism attracted followers among nobles and towns, but Catholicism ultimately prevailed with the support of the monarchy and Jesuits.

Why is the Reformation in Poland important?

It showed how strong Catholic revival efforts could reverse Protestant gains in Eastern Europe.

Breakup of Hungary

The division of Hungary after the Ottoman conquest in 1526.

What did the breakup of Hungary do?

It split the kingdom into three parts: Ottoman-controlled central Hungary, Habsburg-controlled west, and semi-independent Transylvania.

Why is the breakup of Hungary important?

It weakened Hungarian independence, allowed Protestantism to take root in Transylvania, and intensified the struggle between Ottomans and Habsburgs.

Simony

The buying and selling of church offices.

What did simony do?

It allowed wealthy families and individuals to gain religious positions for power and profit, often leading to corruption.

Why is simony important?

It was one of the abuses criticized by reformers, fueling calls for change that led to the Reformation.

Holy Office

The Roman Catholic institution created to defend orthodoxy, also known as the Roman Inquisition.

What did the Holy Office do?

It investigated and punished heresy, censored books, and enforced Catholic doctrine, especially during the Counter-Reformation.

Why is the Holy Office important?

It exemplified the Church's efforts to combat Protestantism and strengthen internal discipline.

Index of Prohibited Books

A list of banned works published by the Catholic Church starting in 1559.

What did the Index of Prohibited Books do?

It censored texts considered heretical, including Protestant writings and works that challenged Catholic doctrine.

Why is the Index of Prohibited Books important?

It symbolized the Church's effort to control knowledge and defend orthodoxy during the Counter-Reformation.

Council of Trent

A Catholic Church council held between 1545 and 1563.