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Progressive Presidents
Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson, were leaders who advocated for reforms to address social, economic, and political issues. They supported antitrust laws, labor rights, conservation efforts, and expanded the role of the federal government to limit corporate power and protect the public.
Woodrow Wilson
(president 1913-1921) His presidency marked a high point of progressive reform with his "New Freedom" agenda, which sought to curb corporate power and promote economic fairness. He oversaw the creation of the Federal Reserve System to stabilize the banking industry and passed the Clayton Antitrust Act to strengthen anti-monopoly laws. He also supported labor rights and established the Federal Trade Commission to regulate unfair business practices. However, his progressive policies did not extend to racial equality, as he upheld segregation in federal offices, reflecting the racial attitudes of his time.
Theodore Roosevelt
(president 1901-1909) He was a key leader of the Progressive Era, known for his "Square Deal" policies that aimed to regulate big business, protect consumers, and conserve natural resources. He aggressively pursued trust-busting, breaking up monopolies to promote fair competition. He also championed labor rights and pushed for government oversight of industries, exemplified by the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act. His dedication to conservation led to the establishment of national parks and protected lands (writings of John Muir and Gifford Pinchot were influential in TR’s support of conservation and environmental protection).
William Howard Taft
(president 1909-1913) Continued many of Roosevelt’s progressive policies but took a more conservative approach, emphasizing legal action over executive orders. Backed Square Deal and had the support of Progressive and Conservative members of the Republican party at the beginning of his term. He broke up more trusts than Roosevelt but faced criticism for siding with big business, especially after supporting the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, which disappointed progressive reformers. His rift with Roosevelt led to a split in the Republican Party, allowing Woodrow Wilson to win the presidency in 1912. Despite his mixed legacy, he later served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, where he had a lasting impact on American law.
Suffrage
Refers to the movement to extend voting rights, particularly pushed by Wesrern states and focusing on women’s suffrage. Advocates like Susan B. Anthony and Alice Paul worked tirelessly for the passage of the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote in 1920. This achievement marked a pivotal moment in expanding democratic participation and addressing gender inequality in the United States.
Movements included: AWSA (led by Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe) and the NWSA (led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B Anthony)
Social Problems tackled by Progrssives
sanitation codes for industry and housing
child labor outlawed in dangerous trades at local level
stricter fire codes (Triangle Shirtwaist Factory)
worker’s compensation broached with max hours and minimum wages – considered for first time
Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) – pushed for prohibition
also pushed for better working conditions for women and children – social work became a natural employment opportunity for women during the Progressive Era
General aspects of the progressive movement
The Progressive Movement sought to address the challenges of industrialization, urbanization, and political corruption. Progressives advocated for reforms in labor laws, government transparency, and public health. They believed in using science, education, and government action to improve society.
Views of the Progressives
Progressives believed in the power of government to improve society and reduce inequalities. They sought to regulate big businesses, protect workers, and promote social welfare. While generally optimistic, their views sometimes reflected biases, such as support for eugenics or discriminatory immigration policies.
Federal Reserve Act
Passed in 1913, it created the Federal Reserve System (the central banking system of the United States). It established a structure to manage monetary policy, regulate banks, and stabilize the economy. This reform was a response to financial panics and aimed to provide a safer and more flexible financial system. Federal Reserve notes now become official paper money and circulation of money could be increased or decreased much more easily with this centralized monetary body.
16th Amendment
Allows Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states on the basis of population.
17th Amendment
States that the United States Senate should be made up of two Senators from each state, elected directly by their state (the people) as a whole.
18th Amendment
Declared the production, transport, and sale of intoxicating liquors illegal (prohibition).
19th Amendment
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex (women’s suffrage).
Social Gospel
Was a Christian movement advocating for social justice and the application of Christian ethics to solve societal issues like poverty and inequality. Leaders like Walter Rauschenbusch emphasized that faith should inspire activism to improve living conditions for the poor.
Labor Reform
Progressive labor reform aimed to improve working conditions, reduce child labor, and establish fair wages. Legislation like the Fair Labor Standards Act and shorter workdays were results of these efforts. Labor unions played a critical role in pushing for these changes.
Settlement Houses
Provided social services to urban poor communities, especially immigrants. They offered education, childcare, and healthcare, promoting community development and integration into American society.
Example: Jane Addams’s Hull House
New Freedom
Was a platform of Woodrow Wilson emphasizing small business, free-market competition, and opposition to monopolies. Wilson believed that limiting government involvement in economic affairs while dismantling trusts would restore economic fairness.
New Nationalism
Theodore Roosevelt advocated for increased government regulation of businesses, social welfare programs, and labor rights. Roosevelt argued for the government’s responsibility to protect the public interest over corporate profits.
Progressives and Trusts
Progressives viewed trusts (large business monopolies) as threats to economic fairness and democracy. While some, like Roosevelt, sought to regulate them, others, like Wilson, aimed to break them up entirely to foster competition.
Social Darwinism
Applied Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution to human society, justifying inequality as “natural selection.” Progressives generally opposed this view, advocating for reforms to mitigate societal disparities.
Upton Sinclair
Was a muckraking journalist whose novel The Jungle (1906) exposed unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry. His work led to public outrage and the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act.
Ida Tarbell
Was a journalist known for her revealing of Standard Oil’s monopolistic practices. Her investigative work highlighted corporate abuses and helped strengthen antitrust efforts.
Populism
Represented rural farmers and laborers seeking government action against economic injustices. The movement called for policies like currency reform and direct election of senators, many of which influenced Progressive policies. Was a precursor to Progressivism.
Lincoln Steffens
Was a muckraker who exposed corruption in city governments through his book The Shame of the Cities. His work highlighted the need for political reform at local levels.
W.E.B. Dubois
Was a civil rights leader and co-founder of the NAACP, advocating for immediate equality for African Americans. He opposed Booker T. Washington’s accommodationist approach and called for activism to combat racial injustice.
Booker T. Washington
Emphasized vocational education and economic self-reliance for African Americans. His Atlanta Compromise speech called for gradual social progress, sparking debate among civil rights leaders.
John Dewey
Was an educator and philosopher who advocated for progressive education. He emphasized experiential learning and the importance of schools in fostering democratic ideals.
1912 Presidential election
Featured a split in the Republican Party between Taft and Roosevelt, leading to Wilson’s victory. It highlighted debates over Progressivism, with Wilson and Roosevelt offering competing visions of reform.
Conservationists
Focused on the efficient management and use of natural resources, such as forests, grasslands, and rivers. Represents a “middle-of-the-road” policy as opposed to the uncontrolled exploitation of such resources or the preservation those resources from any human exploiters and planned use and renewal of resources, setting aside acres of land for recreational use (Theodore Roosevelt). Leaders like Gifford Pinchot advocated for responsible resource management to balance environmental preservation with economic needs.
Pragmatism
A philosophy championed by thinkers like John Dewey and William James that emphasized practical solutions and experimentation. Progressives applied pragmatic approaches to social and political reform.
Child Labor
Efforts to combat child labor included laws restricting the employment of children in factories and mines. Progressives pushed for compulsory education laws to ensure children attended school rather than worked.
Preservationists
Sought to protect natural areas from human interference and maintain resources in their present condition with as little human impact as possible (John Muir). They believed in safeguarding wilderness for its intrinsic value and future generations.
Conservationists
Advocated for the responsible use of natural resources to prevent depletion. They sought a balance between economic development and environmental protection.
Example(s): Gifford Pinchot
Role of the Supreme Court in Progressive legislation
They played a mixed role, sometimes upholding Progressive reforms and other times limiting them. Decisions like Lochner v. New York struck down labor laws, while Muller v. Oregon upheld protections for women workers.
John Muir
Was a naturalist and preservationist who founded the Sierra Club. His advocacy for protecting wilderness areas led to the establishment of national parks like Yosemite.
Jacob Riis
Was a photojournalist whose book How the Other Half Lives documented the harsh living conditions in urban tenements. His work sparked awareness and calls for housing reforms.
Atlanta Compromise
A social policy, propounded by black leader Booker T. Washington in 1895, advocating that blacks concentrate on learning useful skills rather than agitate over segregation, disfranchisement, and discrimination. In Washington’s view, black self-help and self-improvement were the surest ways to economic advancement.
People’s (Populist) Party
Was an important “third party” founded in 1891 that sought to unite various disaffected groups, especially farmers. The party nominated James B. Weaver for president in 1892 and in 1896 joined with the Democratic Party in support of William Jennings Bryan for president.
Plessy v. Ferguson
Supreme Court ruling (1896) that held that racial segregation of public accommodations did not infringe on the “equal protection” clause of the Constitution; this “separate but equal” doctrine was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.
Sherman Silver Purchase Act
An 1890 law that obliged the federal government to buy and coin silver, thereby counteracting the deflationary tendencies of the economy at the time; its repeal in 1894, following the depression of 1893, caused a political uproar.
Clayton Antitrust Act
Legislation that strengthened antitrust laws and reworked Sherman Anti-trust Act to make it stronger—corporations more accountable to the well-being of workers. Passed in 1914, it outlawed interlocking directorates, legalized strikes and peaceful protests as a means for workers to gain concessions from employers, exempted labor unions and agricultural organizations from antitrust laws, and limited the use of injunctions in labor disputes.
Federal Reserve Act
A 1913 law establishing a Federal Reserve Board, which controlled the rediscount rate and thus the money supply; this helped regularize the national banking system.
Hepburn Act
Federal legislation, passed in 1906, that gave the Interstate Commerce Commission sufficient power to inspect railroad companies’ records, set maximum rates, and outlaw free passes.
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)
A militant labor organization, founded in 1905 and inspired by European anarchists, that advocated “abolition of the wage system” and called for a single union of all workers, regardless of trade or skill level; it was repressed during and after World War I.
Muckraker
A term for progressive investigative journalists who exposed the corrupt side of American life at the turn of the twentieth century by “raking up the muck.” They looked to bring the public’s attention to these issues (and gain prominence and money), exposed how certain professions (lawyers, judges etc.) were contributing to the corruption of big business, and also made many aware of problems of living conditions and horrors of child labor. Figures like McLure, Lloyd, Tarell, Steffens, Riis, Sinclaire played pivotal roles in raising public awareness and driving reforms in business, labor, and government.
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)
An organization, founded in 1890, that united the National Woman Suffrage Association, headed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, and the American Woman Suffrage Association, headed by Lucy Stone. After ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment granting women the vote in 1920, the NAWSA became the League of Women Voters.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
A national interracial organization, founded in 1909, that promoted the rights of African Americans. Initially it fought against lynching, but from 1955 through 1977, under the leadership of Roy Wilkins, it launched the campaign that overturned legalized segregation and it backed civil rights legislation. The NAACP remains the nation’s largest African American organization.
Progressivism
A cluster of movements for various forms of social change—some of them contradictory—during the early twentieth century; progressives generally opposed corruption and inefficiency in government, monopoly power among corporations, and wayward behavior among immigrants and others.
Square Deal
Wanted regulation of corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources and cooperation between labor and business. Initially used by President Theodore Roosevelt to describe a resolved settlement between workers and an employer, but more generally used as a goal to promote fair business practices and to punish “bad” corporations that used their economic power/success unfairly.
Underwood Tariff
A 1913 reform law that lowered tariff rates and levied the first regular federal income tax.
Coinage Act of 1873
Put the US on the Gold Standard, led to deflation, hurting debtors and farmers – Crime of 1873, subsequent 5-year depression led to economic ruin for many.
Panic of 1893
Set off a 4 year depression - caused by a federal deficit and withdrawal of British investors from US markets, terrible unemployment problems, many laborers lost their jobs, unions lost what little power they gained over the last decade (remember and refer to Coxey’s Army)
William McKinley
(president 1897-1901) was a pro-business Republican president known for his support of high tariffs and economic expansion. Proponent of big business and supported wealthy interests in the US. Believed in trickle – down effect – when things were going well for the wealthy, everyone would prosper – treat the wealthy favorably and the lower class would benefit through job creation. Cut taxes, make loans easily available for wealthy to help them reinvest money, expand businesses, creating more opportunities for people in all economic classes. Also supported industrial and urban interests more so than farming and agricultural interests despite the traditional support for these sectors of the population by the Republican Party. Rockefeller and Morgan supported him.
William Jennings Bryan
Voice of the farmers and the working class. Supported Sherman Silver Purchase Act, Coinage of Silver, increased inflation, and farmer interests. Believed taking US off gold standard would help debtors/farmers. Wealthy and conservatives opposed him whom they perceived to be a radical political trying to redistribute wealth to lower classes. Populist Party strongly supported his nomination for the presidency.
Won many seats in 1894 congressional elections and seemed to be in position to seriously contend for the 1896 presidential election. However, the Democratic Party also felt that W.J. Bryan was a strong candidate for their party and Democrats nominated him as well
populist constituency had no choice but to fully support the Democratic Party – thus killed the Populist Party in the process. He accepted Democratic nomination since they had more money to support his presidential run and stronger built in constituency of voters
Election of 1896
Bryan continued to focus campaign on shifting away from the gold standard and creating inflation, supporting the commoners in the US. McKinley eventually won and his victory showed the power of big business and its influence in US politics and illustrated that big businesses and cities were becoming more important to American voters than the agrarian culture which dominated the 19th Century
Is sometimes referred to as the first ‘modern election’ due to role played by big business interests, shifting focus toward urbanization, and shift away from agrarian issues
Election of 1900
William Jennings Bryan ran again with the same basic platform supporting free silver. By this time the public had tired of the debate and the economy had fully recovered. He did not have a captivated audience for his political and economic speeches as he had to the 1896 election. In the context of a strong economy and recent territorial acquisitions as a result of the victory in the Spanish American War, McKinley would easily win re-election with new running mate Theodore Roosevelt – will become an important development in Spring 1901
Roosevelt’s Politics
Won 1904 election convincingly v. Bryan. Popularity hit a downturn during the Panic of 1907; big business interests blamed TR for the economy due to trustbusting, and TR blamed them by saying that big business fixed it. He handpicked William Howard Taft to succeed him in 1908 to carry on the Progressive agenda. Democrats nominated Bryan again, and the Socialist Party nominated Eugene Debs – who received over 400,000 votes. Taft won the election comfortably, partially due to TR support. Also expanded presidential power after a string of weak presidents.
Progressive Reforms enacted by Woodrow Wilson
Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916: increased credit to farmers so they could qualify for loans easier
Warehouse Act of 1916: authorized Federal Reserve to approve loans on crops–both Populist Party ideas
Federal Employees Compensation Act of 1916
National Child Labor Committee established in 1904
Adamson Act established 8 hr workday for interstate commerce railroad workers – aditional hours led to OT pay
Conservative Nature of the Progressive Movement/Era
Most reforms centered around maintaining the status quo of capitalism and democracy in the United States during a period of radical sweeping changes in other parts of the world. Maintaining institutions through regulation while avoiding radical overhaul of political and economic systems seemed to be a major overall goal of the movement. Socialism, communism, and anarchy were being embraced in other parts of the world but majority of US citizens were not willing to support such radicalism.
Wilson supported rigid segregation and Civil Rights was not part of the Progressive platform. The practice of lynching was common in the South, and ignored by the movement and education reform for minorities and poor citizens not addressed. Native American issues ignored and were still denied citizenship. Wilson was not supportive of minorities (wanted self determination for colonized peoples, but in his own country these groups were ignored).
Niagara Movement
Demanded end to segregation, equal justice, and more opportunities for higher education; raised awareness of African American issues—published “The Crisis.”
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