Human sexuality - Quiz 2

communication

• builds emotional intimacy, understanding, love

• increases couple satisfaction

• increases the probability the relationship will last

• can reduce anger and frustration

“onion” theory of communication

• early in a relationship people discuss non-personal issue

• as time passes people take layers off and share personal
  information

According to Vanfossen (1996) people have three competing goals in communication:

1. “get the job done”- we have a message for someone, and we want to
   communicate that message

2. “relational goal” - we want to maintain the relationship and not hurt or
   offend the person with our message.

3. “identity management goal” - we want our communication to project a certain image of ourselves

enmeshed family

• boundaries do not allow for family members to be individuals 

• over-sharing or smothering among family members

disengaged family

• rigid families, described as emotionally detached

• little to no communication among members

nonverbal communication

sending and receiving wordless communication cues
– body language, body distance
– characteristics of voice, touch, and
environment/appearance
– makes up a large amount of human communication
– ability to interpret improves with age
– often varies across cultures
– likely to be misunderstood

Is there a difference between men and women with nonverbal communication?

Women are better at deciphering nonverbal communication

genderlects

fundamental differences in how men and women
communicate

• report and rapport

women use less assertiveness in their communication compared to men:

1. tag questions

• invites discussion to minimize disagreements

• “It’s really cold in here, isn’t it?”

• “That’s an interesting idea, isn’t it?”

2. disclaimers
   • “I may be wrong, but. . .”

3. hedge words
   • “sort of,” “kind of,” “would you mind?”

4. (general) question statements
   • “Am I off base here?”

report-talk

imparts knowledge and helps to establish status
likely used by men
* men may see a hierarchical world with need to
maintain status, while interpreting comments as
challenges to defend

rapport-talk

establishes relationships and maintains intimacy
likely used by women

critique of tannen

approach is unidimensional, basing gender only on biological sex

Individualistic culture

encourages members to have an independent sense of self

• values individual needs/goals

• Ex: USA, Canada, Great Britain, Australia

collectivist culture

• encourages members to value group needs over individual
  needs

• Ex. Asian cultures, Latin cultures

low-context communication

• use language to express thoughts, feelings and ideas as
  directly as possible

• cultural examples given in textbook: Scandinavian, German,
  Swiss, and most of North America

high context communication

• relies heavily on nonverbal cues

• not as direct

• listener’s understanding depends on non-verbal behaviors,
  social cues, and relationship history

• cultural examples given in textbook: Arab, Asian

Differences in perceptions of texting for in males and females

females more likely than males to view texting as a positive connection with others, compared to males

texting advantages

• express affection

• communicate about confrontational topics

• clarify misunderstandings

• apologize

• reduce inhibitions of face-to-face communication

texting disadvantages

• misunderstandings from the lack of nonverbal cues and use
  of abbreviations/shortcuts

• delay in response time of might make sender feel
  ignored/upset

• texting can be addictive

• certain types of texts can reduce relationship satisfaction
  – random texting
  – texting to work through problems
  – texting to apologize

sexual communication

Couples who communicate about sex report more relationship satisfaction

self-disclosure

– can deepen intimacy and feelings of love
– important to most healthy relationships
• too much too soon can jeopardize the relationship

message interpretation

interpreting a message is dependent on nature of the relationship and the person’s mood at the time

research on positive and negative interactions

• Happy couples have 20 positive interactions for every
  negative one

• Conflicting couples have 5 positive interactions for every
  negative one

• Divorcing couples have 0.8 positive interactions for
  every negative one

gender

refers to behavioral, psychological, and social characteristics of being
male, being female, or other gender

biological sex

refers to the biological aspects of being male or female

sex assigned at birth

• a current way to medically discuss an infant’s sex identification

• has replaced the term “biological sex” in most discussions

chromosome

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the
nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the
form of genes

gamete

a mature haploid male or female egg cell that is able to
unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction

prenatal development

Each parent supplies a gamete, each with half of the
genetic information (23 chromosomes)
• Each gamete includes a sex chromosome:
– Male: sperm (X or Y)
– Female: egg/ovum (X)

hormones

chemical produced in the body and released into the blood
that regulates the activity of certain cells or organs

female hormones

estrogen & progesterone

male hormones

androgen (testosterone)

disorders of sexual development

Atypical sexual differentiation can occur with
irregularities in:
1. sex chromosomes
2. sex hormones, including maternal hormone
exposure

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

1 in 700 live male births
• XXY – egg contains an extra X
• develops male genitalia, but not fully
• tall, feminized body
• low testosterone levels
• gynecomastia - increased size of the male breast
tissue/fat
• infertile
➢ testosterone therapy can enhance secondary sex
characteristics
➢ often undiagnosed

turner syndrome

1 in 2500 live female births
• egg has no sex chromosome
• ovaries not fully developed
• amenorrhea – abnormal absence of menstruation
• infertile
• immature breast development
• short stature
• intellectual disability
➢ estrogen and progesterone therapy
➢ health problems in adulthood

XYY Syndrome & Triple X Syndrome

• sperm contains an extra sex chromosome, or egg has an
extra X
• May be normal male (XYY) or normal female (XXX)
• May have slight intellectual disability and/or fertility problems

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

1 in 15,000 girls
• XX genetic female
glands prenatally
• Individual has female internal organs, and sometimes
masculinized external genitalia
• Similar syndrome develops from mother taking male
hormones
➢ Treatments include surgery and medication
➢ Pregnancy possible in many CAH females

Androgen-insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

• 1 in 20,000 boys

• XY genetic male’s body is insensitive to testosterone that is
  produced by the testes

• no internal reproductive structure except two undescended
  testes

• shallow “vagina”

• breasts develop

• do not menstruate

• infertile
  ➢ Surgery can lengthen vagina
  ➢ Genetically male, but fully feminized as female

gender

behavioral, psychological, and social characteristics
associated with being male, female, or other gender

gender traits

biologically determined differences between males (XY) and
females (XX)

gender roles

set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors that
are generally acceptable for people based on their actual or
perceived sex

androgyny

A combination of high levels of both feminine and
masculine characteristics

transgender

An umbrella term for a person whose gender identity or
gender expression is incongruent with (or does not
“match”) the sex they were assigned at birth

misgender

The act of referring to someone using a word or pronoun
that does not correctly reflect the gender with which they
identify.

gender binary

a gender classification system that divides people into two
groups: male and female, or masculine and feminine

gender spectrum

a continuum of the possibilities of gender

gender fluid

a person whose gender identity shifts between masculine
and feminine or moves across the gender spectrum.

cisgender

a person whose gender identity is congruent (or “matches”)
with the sex they were assigned at birth.

Critiques of Gender Binary and Gender Spectrum

• do not fully classify the variety of human gender

• definition of gender has evolved and continues to
  evolve

genderqueer

• a gender identity label often used by people who do not identify with the gender binary.
  – typically, individuals who identify as queer or genderqueer reject traditional
  gender roles and believe that gender fluidity allows them a more flexible range of gender expression.

agender

not having a gender identity

bigender

identifying as both a man and a woman

pangender

identifying as a person instead of a gender

disorders of sex development

DSM-5 term that refers to conditions that can result in a body that often
cannot be easily categorized as male or female; in the past has been
referred to as intersex, hermaphroditism, or pseudohermaphroditism. May
also be referred to as differences in sex development

intersex

A term used to refer to a variety of conditions in which a person is born
with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t appear to fit the typical
definition of male or female (these conditions are also referred to as
disorders of sex development).

Ex. CAH, AIS

gender dysphoria

a condition in which a person feels extreme confusion
and/or discomfort between her/his/their biological sex
and gender identity

Gender Affirmation or Confirmation Surgery

• medical gender transition; used to be called “sexual
  reassignment surgery.”

• includes a wide range of various surgical options to
  change the body and genitalia

vaginoplasty

• offers the opportunity for removal of masculine-appearing genitalia
  and replacement with a gender-congruent appearance.

• a multi-staged surgical procedure where a vagina is created, by
  removing the penis, as well as the testicles and scrotum

phalloplasty

• offers the opportunity for removal of feminine-appearing genitalia and
  replacement with a gender-congruent appearance.

• a multi-staged surgical procedure that may include a variety of
  different procedures, including creation of the penis, lengthening the
  urethra, creating the tip (glans) of the penis, creation of the scrotum,
  removal of the vagina, and placing erectile and testicular implants

top surgery

a reconstructive surgery performed on the chest for those who wish to
alter their chest size, shape, and overall appearance.

two-spirit

• a person who adopts a variety of combinations of gender
  identity, dress, and social roles in some cultures.
  • observed in several non-Western cultures (historically
  and/or currently)

romantic love

passionate love that includes sexual desire, physical
attraction, ecstasy, and elation

Companionate Love (Conjugal Love)

deep affection, attachment, intimacy, trust, loyalty

colors of love theory

six basic ways (or “colors”) to love, each being
independent of one anothe

eros

• the romantic lover

• erotic love 

• picture ideal partner for their pleasures

• in childhood, a secure attachment style with their
  caregivers

ludus

• game-playing lover

• enjoy the act of seduction

• commitment, dependency, and intimacy are not
  valued

• often juggle several relationships at the same time

• In childhood, often have an avoidant attachment style
  with caregivers

storage

• quiet-calm lover

• love builds over time

• they don’t suddenly “fall in love”

• marriage, stability, and comfort within love are the
  goal

• should the relationship end, they likely remain friends
  with ex-lover

mania

• crazy lover

• possessive and dependent

• consumed by thoughts of the beloved

• dramatic: each encouraging sign from the lover brings
  joy; each little problem brings heartache

• fear separation

• tend to wonder why their relationships tend to fail

• in childhood, often had anxious/ambivalent
  attachment style with caregivers

pragma

• practical lover

• have a “check-list” of qualities they seek

• want deep, lasting love

• evaluating the romantic marketplace

• planners (marriage, children, large investments,
  divorce)

agape

• selfless lover

• never demanding, patient

• ever jealous

• do not need reciprocity

• relationships tend to be brief episodes

• deferential to needs of other lover

poorer psychological health

manic and ludus

higher psychological health

storage and eros

birth-order

• middle children have higher rates of ludic love styles

• youngest children are more likely to have pragma,
  storge, or agape love styles

• only-child individuals have higher rates of eros and
  mania love styles

men are more likely to…

• have ludus style

• more socially acceptable to have Eros or Ludus styles

• less socially acceptable to have Agape style

women are more likely to…

• have pragma style

• more socially acceptable to have Agape

• less socially acceptable to have Ludus style
  

passion

sexual desire and physical attraction; part of romantic
love

intimacy

connection and feelings of closeness; making an
emotional investment

commitment

to attest to love in the short term; to maintain that love
in the long term

non-love

• no passion, no intimacy, no Commitment

• most of our casual daily relationships

liking

• intimacy only

• when there is intimacy without (sexual)
  passion and without strong personal
  commitment, people are friends

• can separate for long periods of time and
  resume the relationship as if it had never
  ended

infatuation

• passion only

• physiological arousal and a sexual desire for
  another person (ex. one-night stands)

• typically, infatuation fades, often to be
  replaced by infatuation with another person

empty love

• commitment only

• a couple that stays together even though their
  relationship long ago lost its passion and
  intimacy

romantic love

• intimacy and passion only

• often the first phase of a relationship

• often an intense, joyful experience

Companionate Love

• intimacy and commitment only

• long-term, deeply committed friendships
  spanning into married or long-term couples that have experienced a decrease in passion in love life

fatuous love

• passion and commitment only

• means “silly” or “foolish”

• one does not really know the person to whom one is making a commitment

consummate love

• contains intimacy, passion, and commitment

• something most people strive to have

behavioral reinforcement theory

• we love because another person reinforces positive feelings in ourselves

• positive/rewarding feeling in the presence of another
  makes us like them, even if the reward is unrelated to that person

• love is a result of many mutually reinforcing activities with a person

cognitive theories

• a behavior occurs, and then we mentally interpret it as love

• if we think someone likes us, we are more prone to find them attractive

evolutionary theories

Humans have 3 basic instincts:
1. Need for protection
2. Parent protects the child
3. Sexual drive
• we love in order to produce offspring
• heterosexual men want healthy women to carry offspring
• heterosexual women want men with resources to care for her and the offspring

physiological arousal theory

• physiological arousal (heart rate, body temperature) is labeled with an emotion, such as love

• we are more likely to experience love when we are physiologically aroused for any reason

• couples who met during a crisis are more likely to feel strongly about one another

• arousal is a necessary component of love, but love is more than arousal alone

pheromones

• odorless chemicals processed by brain influence choice of sexual partner

• More likely to be attracted to someone with pheromones different from our own, and thus, likely to be genetically different

neurotransmitters

• chemicals released from one nerve cell to another nerve cell can cause cravings to be with a partner (ex. dopamine)

hormones

chemicals released from a gland into the bloodstream cause cravings to be with a partner (ex. vasopressin, adrenaline, oxytocin)

field of eligibles

• our culture determines who we are attracted to through social rules about acceptable and unacceptable partners

loss of love

• associated with sadness, depression, anger

• more likely to enter another relationship

• vulnerable to lowered self-esteem, self-blame, distrust others

jealousy

• interpretation and emotional reaction that a relationship is threatened

• shows lack of trust in relationship

• self-fulfilling prophecy- jealous individuals can drive their mates away, which convinces them that they were right to be jealous in the first place

possessiveness

• trying to manipulate the partner in attempts to feel worthy

• is a sign of low self-esteem and can lead to stalking

• is considered to be unhealthy, and may require help from a
  mental health professional

stalking

• relentlessly pursuing someone, shadowing him or her, or making threatening gestures or claims toward the person when the relationship is unwanted.

cohabitation

living together in a sexual relationship when not legally married

pros: learn more about each other’s habits, share finances,
mature the relationship

cons: unsupportive family, cut off from friends

• greater risk to divorce

comarital sex

• consenting of married couples to sexually exchange partners (swingers/polyamorists)

• about 3 million swingers in the U.S.