ucla eps sci 1 final

define science

The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. OR a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.

define geology

The scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of the earth.

Give examples of how science can be useful

They can prevent harmful false explanations ie when George Washington died from blood-letting when he just had a cold. They can have useful applications ie filtered water, smart phones, aviation.

Distinguishbetween"basic"and"applied"science,and explain how the former can lead to the latter.

Basic science, such as understanding how cells work, is research aimed at understanding fundamental problems. Applied science, such as the medical field, is the application of basic scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. So there are applications in the medical field based on the understanding of how cells work.

State different ways in which geology can be useful, and give examples.

Geology gives us an understanding of the Earth (and other planets) so it can help mitigate natural hazards (ie reinforced concrete in earthquake-prone areas) and unnatural hazards (ie solving the effects of a sewage leak into groundwater), it is key to finding and extracting useful resources (ie oil and important minerals for day-to-day use), and to dealing with the resulting environmental consequences (ie over-mining and pollution)

Distinguish between a science, the thing being studied scientifically, and the people doing it.

science is an enterprise (or pursuit, endeavor, etc.), which can investigate different things and the different things could be like earth (geology), life (biology), behavior/mind (psychology), etc. It's conducted by "scientists," but if it's a matter of the thing being studied then they're classified as like geologists, biologists, psychologists, etc

Give examples of scientists doing good.

Edward Jenner coming up with the idea for vaccines, Jonas Salk creating the Polio vaccine, Rachel Carson writing Silent Spring--a conservation science book about the effects of ddt on egg shells of birds of prey

Discuss how science considered morally bad can beprevented.

Can be prevented through government regulation ie the FDA and by funding "good" science programs ie NASA and NSF. Also, scientists can join associations like the World Medical Association (WMA) which declares ethical principles regrading human experimentation.

Describe how human flaws can negatively impact the quality of the science that they do.

Scientists can be biased or dishonest with their findings which can affect the data and make their findings untrustworthy.

List the steps/components of the scientific method.

It's a cycle of making observations, then thinking of questions, then forming a hypothesis and developing testable predictions. From there, you can gather data to test predictions which will either lead to developing general theories or altering the initial hypothesis leading back to developing testable predictions. Once you're at the stage of developing general theories, though, you can make more observations and the cycle continues.

Describe how adherence to the scientific method ensures evidence-based explanations for phenomena.

It ensures evidence-based explanations because part of the scientific method is literally gathering data to test the predictions and from that developing general theories.

Discuss factors in good experimental design.

A control group (used to challenge previous scientific method; does not receive treatment), sufficient sample size (to get more reliable results), a representative sample(must represent the population of what's being studied), and it should be a reproducible experiment(so that it can be redone and more data can be gathered).

Explain how the scientific method is applicable to historical sciences, using the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event as an example.

Scientists observed a high amount of iridium in the Creataceous-Paleogene boundary which is rare in Earth's crust. This led to questions of why it's there, so it was hypothesized that an asteroid impact caused this. To test this, they needed more evidence and it was later found that there was shocked quartz at the boundary, suggesting an impact of some sort, and that the crater in the Yucatan peninsula was likely the site of impact. This supporting data helps develop the theory that the extinction event was caused by an asteroid impact.

Define data, and distinguish between different types (quantitative vs. qualitative, and continuous vs. discrete vs. categorical).

Data (singular datum) are individual units of information. Quantitative applies to numerical data, and qualitative applies to more descriptive data. Continuous data is like how if you're measuring something, there's an infinite amount of measurements between 1 and 2 cm. Discrete is like if you roll a dice, there will only be 6 possible outcomes, not an infinite amount. Categorical is like data that can be divided into groups ie race, sex, age, education level.

Convert between different units of measure.

use dimensional analysis I guess. I don't know how I should define this

Explain how data can be analyzed, visualized, andinterpreted.

Can be analyzed through statistics. Can be visualized through graphs and plots. Can be interpreted to attempt to understand its implications.

Give an example of how a graph/chart can be misleading, even if not technically inaccurate.

Can be misleading if the graph doesn't start at zero, it has a weirdly large or small scale, or there just isn't a connection between the two variables (ie drowning deaths and ice cream production)

Explain the difference between compositional and mechanical layering.

Compositional layering has to do with the chemical properties so like the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core each have a different chemical composition. Mechanical layering has to do with each layers' physical property so if it's solid, liquid, or that putty consistency.

For both compositional and mechanical layering, list the layers of the Earth from the outside to the center, and briefly describe what distinguishes each layer from the others.

Compositional:

-crust: mostly oxygen and silicon

-mantle: mostly oxygen, magnesium, and silicon

-outer core: iron, sulfur, oxygen, nickel

-inner core: iron and nickel

Mechanical:

-lithosphere: rigid

-asthenosphere: plastic/putty

-mesosphere: solid

-outer core: liquid

-inner core: solid

Define density, and use it to explain convection.

Density is the amount of mass per unit volume so basically how compact something is. Convection can be explained by density because less dense material will rise because it's lighter and more dense material will sink because it's heavier. Heat escapes Earth through convection when hot matter from the mantle rises causing plates to form and diverge. Then where plates converge, a cooled plate is dragged under a neighboring plate causing the initial hot matter that is now cooled to sink, warm, and rise again.

State the three types of plate boundaries, and the relative movement of the plates at each.

Convergent: two plates move towards each other Divergent: two plates move away from each other Transform: two plates move past each other

Outline how a divergent plate boundary evolves over time.

As the plates start to pull away from each other, a rift valley forms. After a long period of time, sea water begins to fill into this rift valley, and as time keeps going on eventually an ocean forms because the distance between the two continental crusts is so wide.

Draw annotated diagrams of the three kinds of convergent plate boundaries, labelling: oceanic crust, continental crust, lithosphere, asthenosphere, volcanic arc, forearc, accretionary wedge, trench, zone of melting, & suture.

.just look up diagrams for this or look at the slide; i have to pay to upload an image lol

Calculate the amount of time a transform fault takes to slip a given amount, given its slip rate.

distance between LA and SF: about 500 km slip rate of San Andreas fault: about 20 mm/yr (1 km = 1000 m; 1 m = 1000 mm)Dodgers/Giants rivalry will be a cross-town one once again in....?

25,000,000 years (25 million years)(1 year1000mm1000m500km)/(20mm1m*1km)

used dimensional analysis

since we can't use a calculator on the midterm, though, I don't think this is vital lol

Describe hotspots, and explain how they can potentially be used to determine absolute (rather than relative) plate motions.

Hotspots are volcanic regions thought to be fed by underlying mantle that is unusually hot compared with the surrounding mantle. An example of this is the Hawaiian Island chain; since the island of Hawaii is an active volcano, it is the youngest and most newly formed, and since Kauai is the furthest away, and no longer an active volcano, it is the oldest. This supports the theory of plate tectonics because the plate itself has moved over the hotspot forming these islands, Kauai being the first and Hawaii being the most recent, and it shows the direction in which the plate moves (North-West).

List different types of evidence used to constrain the compositional and mechanical layering of the Earth.

direct observations of the crust, mantle that tectonics has brought to the surface, comparison to chondrite meteorites, high-pressure/temperature experiments, seismic shadow zones, Earth's magnetic field, seismic velocities and Earth's mass, volume, and moment of inertia

State some early evidence for a dynamic Earth, pre- plate tectonic hypotheses that tried to explain them, and observations that invalidate these hypotheses.

early observations: fossil record shows change over time

hypotheses: Earth is expanding, Earth is shrinking

-disproved with gps

Explain the observation that led to the hypothesis of continental drift, and the predictions of this hypothesis that proved to be correct.

1596: theorized that continents were ripped apart through floods and earthquakes

1800s: fossil record shows geographically separate plates were once together

1912: hypothesized that continents are slowly drifting around the world

testable predictions: warm-adapted animal fossils found in cold climates, matching rocks in original continents, fit along edge of continental shelf, matching paleoclimates

Illustrate why the inclination of a compass needle varies with latitude (distance north/south of the equator).

the inclination causes the needle to tilt up or down at different latitudes, it can incline more or less; ie if you're at one of the poles, the needle will be opposite, but if you're a little south of the north pole, the needle will be horizontalish with the north end facing slightly down, and if you're at the equator it will be at it's standard placement. this is caused by earth's magnetic field that comes from the core

Explain how paleomagnetic data can constrain the past motion of tectonic plates.

Earth's magnetic field naturally causes rocks with magnetic grains to settle in a way where they align with Earth's magnetic field, either being "locked in" by cooling lava or compacted sediment. By looking at the alignment of different rocks from old layers to the youngest layers, there is an apparent polar-wander pathway that shows that the plates have moved. For example, some rocks in Alaska have magnetic minerals oriented in such a way that they must have been laid down at or near the equator.

List the several major discoveries about the sea floor that were made in the 1950's-1960's, and describe how they led to/supported the theory of plate tectonics.

Mapping the Ocean Floor: using sonar, rift valleys and the mid-Atlantic ridge were discovered

Plotting Earthquakes: lined up with Marie Tharp's map and showed that earthquakes occur along the mid-Atlantic ridge as well as along plate boundaries

Hypothesis of Seafloor Spreading: Harry Hess: pretty much added to the mid-atlantic ridge discovery hypothesizing that the seafloor is spreading caused by convection in the mantle

Seafloor magnetic anomalies: Vine, Matthews, Morley: certain rocks by the mid-Atlantic ridge can affect the way a compass points based on the magnetism underneath

Age of the Sea Floor: drilled down and dating the rocks; older crust far from the faults

Transform faults: helped discover how mid-ocean ridges "jump;" earthquakes only occuring between the two transform faults

List two types of locations where building should often be avoided because of exceptional earthquake hazard.

-on literal fault lines

-areas with loosely packed sediment--leads to liquefaction

List different construction techniques for improving earthquake resistance, and briefly explain how they work.

-unmortared stone: flexible walls; the individual blocks move relative to each other and dissipate the energy

-reinforced concrete: steel beams within concrete blocks that resist compression and tension

-x-bracing: helps keep the structure standing; resists compression and tension

-base isolation: works like car suspension; the building barely moves and the base isolators absorb most of the earthquake movement

-tuned mass damper: so heavy that it moves at a different pace than the building which dissipates the energy of the earthquake altogether

Outline what can be done before an earthquake to prepare for it.

-secure items to walls

-practice drop, cover, and hold

-create a family emergency communication plan

-make a supply kit

-consider earthquake insurance

-consider a retrofit of your building if it has structural issues

State what one should do during an earthquake in various common situations (in a building, outside, in a car, in bed, in a high-rise, near steep slopes), and common misconceptions about what one should do.

-in a building: crawl underneath a table or desk and hold onto its leg and if you can't then crawl next to an interior wall (cover your neck in both situations)

-outside: stay there and move away from buildings, streetlights, and utility wires

-in a car: stay in your car, slow down, if on the freeway take the first exit to escape overpasses, big trees, bridges, powerlines, buildings

-in bed: stay away from windows and anything that could fall; protect your neck w a pillow

-in a high-rise: same as building-near steep slopes: get away from it because the slope could fall

-common misconceptions: standing in a doorway (don't do that),

List things one should do/check after an earthquake.

-expect aftershocks

-check yourself for injuries

-if in a damaged building, go outside

-don't enter damaged buildings

-if trapped, send a text or bang on a pipe or wall

-go inland if you're in a tsunami prone area

-save phone calls for emergencies

Illustrate how earthquakes release stress that has built up along a fault that was "locked," and relate this stress build- up to plate-tectonic motions.

stress is built up in rocks and eventually it has to be released through the form of earthquakes. the stress includes movement of molten rock and the slow movement of the upper mantle and crust. this relates to plate tectonics because stress builds as the plates try to move againts/past each other which is why most earthquakes are by plate boundaries

Define the terms "epicenter," "focus," and "fault scarp," and identify them on a diagram of an earthquake.

-can't put a diagram on here :O so look that part up uwu

-epicenter: on the earth's surface directly above the focus

-focus: the point within the earth where seismic waves originate

-fault scarp: the feature on the surface of the earth that looks like a step caused by slip on the fault

Contrast P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves, and explain how P- and S-waves can be used to locate the epicenter of an earthquake.

-p-waves are primary waves that kinda just compress and dilate (can go through any medium)

-s-waves are secondary waves and they're the ones that vibrate up and down and travel like a sine wave (only move through solids)

-surface waves only travel through the crust (picked up strongest on seismograms) and cause the most damage

-by taking the difference in time between p and s waves picked up from three different seismograms and then finding the distance that correlates and then creating circles around each location that corresponds to that distance, the intersection of the three circles is the epicenter

State the difference in amplitude, and the difference in energy released, for two earthquakes with a magnitude difference of 1 (for example, a M6.0 vs. a M7.0).

-the shaking amplitude of a 7.0 earthquake is 10 times that of a 6.0 earthquake (logarithmic scale)

-for each whole-number increase in magnitude, the seismic energy released increases by about 32 times

Discuss how one can determine how often a fault has had earthquakes in the past.

there's an earthquake record in layers of sediment; cracks that make layers uneven show that an earthquake occurred

Illustrate the difference between an anticline and a syncline.

-anticlines are the ones that form a hill (fold upward) with the oldest rock in the center

-synclines are the ones that form more of valleys (fold downward) with the youngest rock in the center

Distinguish between the hanging wall and the footwall of a fault.

the hanging wall is the one that has the slant above the footwall

Explain the difference between a normal fault, a reverse fault, and a strike-slip fault, and indicate which kind of fault is associated with each kind of plate tectonic boundary.

-normal faults: hanging wall goes down; divergent

-reverse faults: hanging wall goes up; convergent

-strike-slip: slide past each other; transform

List the types of subatomic particles that make up an atom, and explain the difference between different elements.

-proton, neutron, electron

-the number of protons and electrons in an atom determines what element it is; so hydrogen starts the periodic table w just one electron/proton and then helium which has two, etc

State the difference between ionic and covalent bonds.

ionic bonds are where one atom donates an electron to the other while covalent bonds share the electron

Define "mineral," and use this definition to categorizesubstances as either a mineral, or not a mineral.

-a mineral is a naturally occurring, solid, abiotic, crystalline substance, with a specific chemical composition

-minerals: gypsum, quartz, gold, maybe opal (not fixed crystal structure, depends on your definition)

-not minerals: crystallized proteins (biotic), bismuth, carbon dioxide as dry ice

Illustrate the geometry and constituent elements of a silica tetrahedron, and state the common silicate configurations that can be formed from combining silica tetrahedra (isolated, single chains, etc.).

-you'll have to look this up we might have to draw this but it's a tetrahedra

-configurations are isolated, single chains, double chains, sheet, framework

List the common physical properties that can help identify minerals, and explain the difference between crystal form/habit and cleavage.

-common physical properties: color, hardness, streak, crystal form/habit, cleavage angles

-crystal form/habit is the minerals structure, while cleavage is the angle it breaks into

Define"volcano,"list the plate-tectonic settings in which volcanoes typically form, and explain how magma is generated in such settings.

-volcano: a rupture in the crust....that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface-plate

-tectonic settings: divergent or convergent

-divergent: reducing pressure causes melting and for magma to rise to the surface

-convergent: water from subducting plate changes the chemistry and causes the magma to rise; the heating of the subducting plate also causes the magma to rise

State the key compositional and mechanical differences between mafic magma and felsic magma, and relate these to the different ways these magmas typically erupt and flow.

-mafic: less viscous (bc it has less silica), contains less gas, comes out hotter; liquidy lava flow, slow enough that it's escapable, forms blobs when erupted underwater

-felsic: more viscous, contains more gas; the gas leads to more violent eruptions which produce pyroclastic material; makes blockier igneous lava

List the common types of volcanoes, the type of magma (mafic vs. intermediate or felsic) that forms them, and how these volcanoes form from these magma types.

-mafic: shield volcanoes (formed by lava flows of low viscosity), cinder cones (occur along fissures and are built from bolbs of congealed lava ejected from a single vent), fissures (occur when magma flows up through cracks and leaks out onto the surface)

-intermediate: composite volcanoes (formed by different layers from different eruptions over a long period of time; some layers formed by lava flow, others formed by ash, rock, and pyroclastic flows), calderas (formed when a volcano collapses into itself; usually triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, as the result of a large volcanic eruption)

-intermediate/felsic: lava domes (formed by viscous magma being erupted effusively onto the surface and then piling up around the vent)

-felsic: largest calderas (orm when a large magma chamber is emptied by a volcanic eruption or by subsurface magma movement)

Outline the rock cycle.

just look up a diagram lol this'll probably be something we'll have to draw

Explain where intrusive and extrusive rocks form, andhow and why the texture of the two types is different.

intrusive rocks form when they are cooled within the Earth (coarse-grained due to slow cooling which allows crystals to grow larger) and extrusive rocks are cooled near the surface (fine-grained due to fast cooling so there are many small crystals)

Describe the special textures that can form in extrusive rocks, and how they form.

-porphyritic: develop when conditions during cooling of a magma change relatively quickly

-volcanic glass: occur during some volcanic eruptions when the lava is quenched so rapidly that crystallization cannot occur

-bubbles: form from the gas bubbles and solidify; example is pumice which floats in water because it's so light

-pyroclastic: occur when explosive eruptions blast the lava into the air resulting in fragmental, typically glassy material which fall as volcanic ash, lapilli and volcanic bombs

Classify igneous rocks, given their composition (felsic, intermediate, or mafic) and texture (coarse-grained, fine-grained, porphyritic, glassy, or pyroclastic).

-felsic: high proportion of silica; solidify at lower temperatures; ie quartz

-intermediate: "medium" proportion of silica; solidify at "medium" temperatures; ie amphibole

-mafic: low proportion of silica; solidify at higher temperatures; ie pyroxene

-coarse-grained: phaneritic; can see the grains like granite; crystallize slowly beneath Earth's surface

-fine-grained: aphanitic; can't see the grains like basalt; form rapidly near Earth's surface

-porphyritic: mix of large crystals and fine-grained crystals; occur when conditions of cooling of magma change suddenly

-glassy: no crystallization like obsidian; occurs when lava is quenched so rapidly that crystallization can't occur

-pyroclastic: fragmented glassy material that fell as volcanic ash; occur when explosive eruptions blast lava into the air

Illustrate how a single intrusion of magma can produce a body of igneous rock that has layers of different mineralogy (different mineral composition).

different minerals crystallize at different temperatures, so since minerals like quartz stay liquid to a relatively low temperature, they tend to crystallize last in the rocks they're found in; meanwhile, mafic minerals solidify at hotter temperatures so they will be found at lower layers

Explain why mafic volcanism is not so dangerous.

less viscous, so the lava flows slower and is escapable; there's less gas so it's less explosive

Describe the deadliest processes associated withcomposite volcanoes (pyroclastic flows and lahars).

pyroclastic flows can cause avalanches of blasted volcanic material; lahars occur when pyroclastic materials mix with water and cause volcanic mudslides that can damage structures in its path

Describe how large eruptions can have negative consequences even in other parts of the world.

large eruptions can cause widespread devastation; an eruption in Iceland can affect the climate as far away as Egypt and cause a drought that leads to famine

List some useful resources that form by igneous processes, and an example of something that is made from them.

granite used in countertops and for building, obsidian used in surgical tools, pumice used to scrub away dead skin, basalt used as a material in concrete

Explain why so much farming takes place near volcanoes.

volcanic material produces fertile soils; lava coming down the side breaks down slowly to form fertile soil that's able to hold a lot of water

Distinguish between weathering and erosion.

-Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and biological organisms.

-Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location.

-basically weathering is the act of breaking down the rocks and erosion is the removal and transportation of the broken down pieces

List, and explain, different types of physical and

chemical weathering.

physical weathering

-joints: form as a result of expansion due to cooling or relief of pressure as overlying rocks are removed by erosion

-expansion/contraction fracturing: As any substance is heated, it expands. As it cools, it contracts--causes rocks to break off from each other

-frost wedging: when water gets into rock cracks and freezes, causing the cracks to expand

-biological: like when roots get into cracks and expand/mollusks dig into rocks and cause holes

chemical weathering

-dissolution: dissolving away of rock ie when acid rain dissolves away gravestones made of like marble or something else that's soft

-partial dissolution: same as dissolution but its partial if it's happening to stronger rocks like granite which take a longer time to dissolve

-oxidation: causes things to rust so for rocks that are iron-rich, they are weakened through the process of oxidation

List the different agents of erosion.

-gravity: mass wasting

-water: streams and oceans

-glaciers

-wind

Explain "angle of repose," and list some of the factors that influence it.

-the steepest a slope can get before it fails; finer materials have steeper angles and moisture makes angles stronger

-think of how damp sand holds better than dry sand which would hold better than water-saturated sand

-larger particles have steeper angles--compare fine sand to pebbles

-factors that influence it: grain size and moisture

Illustrate the difference between braided and meandering streams.

this says illustrate so we may have to draw this lol but meandering is more sinuous and braided is like a lot of different channels that divide and recombine

Illustrate how a meandering stream evolves over time, and how it can produce an "oxbow" lake.

the meandering stream curves so much that it kind of pinches off from the actual river that ends up flowing through without the large curve

Illustrate how coastal erosion of a headland can cause the progression: seacave->natural bridge->seastack

the waves crashing against the bottom of the cliff erode it away eventually forming a cave; this erosion continues until it breaks through to the other side of the cliff forming a natural bridge going over what was once two caves that are now connected; as the process continues, eventually it breaks off as a seastack

Explain how sand reaches beaches at deltas via rivers, is transported along the beach by longshore drift, and is eventually carried down submarine canyons to the deep ocean.

rivers empty out into the oceans via deltas which and since sand is smaller it deposits at the mouth of the rivers where it empties out; longshore drift is when the waves/current moves the sand at an angle causing it to move north or south on a beach; eventually carried down submarine canyons by being transported to deeper water just from water motion

Distinguish between the two types of glaciers.

-valley glaciers: from from snow being packed and solidified

-continental glaciers: like Antarctica and Greenland

Describe two ways glaciers can erode underlying rock.

-glacial abrasion: pieces of sediment in the ice abrade the rock below

-glacial plucking: when melt water from a glacier freezes around lumps of cracked and broken rock. When the ice moves downhill, rock is plucked from the back wall

List common features that are deposited by glaciers.

moraines, drumlins, eskers, kettle lake

Explain how wind is able to weather solid rock.

sediment is picked up by wind and thrown; when thrown against rocks it wears away at them (how ventifacts are formed)

Illustrate how sand dunes migrate through time.

if the wind keeps blowing a certain away, picking up and putting down sand grains, eventually they will all be in a new location based on the wind direction

List the sequence of events that breaks down old rocks and forms new sedimentary rocks from them.

rock->sediment->rock

-weathering breaks down the rocks, erosion carries them to a new location, deposition occurs when the particles settle out or dissolved minerals precipitate, burial and compaction, lithification and alteration (diagenesis)

Explain two ways that a sedimentary rock can be lithified

-compaction: compaction by burial squeezes out water

-cementation: precipitation or addition of new minerals cements sediment particles

Explain the difference between clastic and (bio)chemical sedimentary rocks.

-clastic are made up of broken up material--like one big rock with a lot of smaller rocks in it

-(bio)chemical--ie salt flats formed from chemical process of water in a lake evaporating and laving behind halite; biological like when mollusk shells form one large rock (form from organisms)

Classify sediment and clastic sedimentary rocks based on grain size.

-mud: shale

-sand: sandstone

-gravel: conglomerate

List three sediment properties, and what they indicate.

-grain size: gravel is usually found yo by mountains while mud is in like river deltas

-sorting: poorly sorted sand could be the result of two different streams emptying into one area; dif processes lead to dif sorting so at the beach it's well sorted but a mudslide could be poorly sorted

-rounding: more rounded grains implies longer distance of transport

Give examples of how certain sedimentary structures are indicative of certain sedimentary environments.

-dunes: compact into sandstone and can tell it was once a sand dune because it has the lines from how the sand was layered down

-glaciers: conglomerate from the plucked rocks below shale from being polished/abrasion

-streams: larger grains by the bottom and smaller like mud by the top

Outline the origin and nature of some natural hazards associated with each agent of erosion (mass-wasting, streams, oceans, glaciers, and wind erosion).

-mass-wasting: mudslides, avalanches, creeping landslides that affect road building

-streams: can flood and cause water level to rise; the way streams erode also affects buildings on the wrong bank of the river

-oceans: coastal erosion like on cliffs; long-shore drift can completely seal off a bay which could be an issue if there's a harbor in the bay; phone/telegraph lines can be cut from natural events underwater

-glaciers: move slowly but when a big piece falls in the water it can cause a tsunami; moraine lakes form and then moraines break which causes a flood that can damage infrastructure

-wind erosion: storm surges (ie hurricanes); tipping powerlines; dust storms/sand storms; long exposure to dust can cause respiratory problems; erosion by wind may take away topsoil with important nutrients

Explain how weathering and erosion contribute to fertile soil.

-breaks up the dirt and brings out the good nutrients

-like volcanism; as the ash breaks down it promotes soil growth

-floodplain of a river; rivers carry nutrients downstream and when it floods the nutrients will spread all over and eventually make a new good place for agriculture

List some sedimentary resources, how they form, and what they are used for.

-salt; salt deposits underground; used for flavoring, preserving, and many uses in the chemical industry (ie chlorine, bleaching, dyeing)

-gypsum; forms in lagoons; drywall made out of gypsum

-limestone; forms from the accumulation of organic debris or when water high in calcium carbonate evaporate, leaving behind the sediment to deposit; used in cement, cleaning products, glass making, and fertilizer

Explain the difference between absolute and relative ages.

-relative ages: tell us the order that things happened in

-absolute ages: a numerical value of age

Determine the relative ages of geologic units using the six principles of relative dating.

-superposition: in an undisturbed succession of sedimentary rock, the oldest layers on the bottom

-original horizontality: due to an influence of gravity, all sediment is originally deposited horizontally (but note that there are ways that layers can form at an inclined angle)

-lateral continuity: similar layers of rock or sediment that are separated by a valley or other erosional feature were once continuous

-cross-cutting: any geologic feature that crosses other layers of rock must be younger than the material it cuts across

-inclusions: an inclusion within some material must be older than the material it is included in

-faunal/fossil succession: because of evolution, biological communities (preserved as fossil assemblages) have changed through time in a regular and determinable manner

Draft a set of annotated diagrams illustrating the geometries and age relationships for the three types of unconformities

can't do it here but the three types of unconformities are:

-disconformity: your typical layered sediment

-angular unconformity: the layers are at an angle

-nonconformity: much older igneous or metamorphic rocks below, overlain by younger sedimentary rocks

Explain the principles behind radiometric dating.

Uses the rate of decay of a radioactive isotope to time how much time has elapsed since something crystallized/formed/cooled.

List three other methods of absolute dating.

fossil dating, magnetic dating, counting annual layers

Define"biosphere"

the worldwide sum of all ecosystems

Explain adaptive radiation, and its connection to mass

extinction events.

adaptive radiation is when one common ancestor evolves into multiple species, each filling a specific niche; after mass extinction events, habitats are left uninhabited which leaves niches available for organisms to adapt to

Discuss why the fossil record is incomplete.

most livings things are not fossilized and most aren't preserved; usually only hard parts are fossilized and occasionally soft parts are fossilized

Give examples of how modern, living organisms can be used as analogs to better understand extinct, fossil organisms

can compare bone structures of modern animals with those that are extinct; so comparing a bat skeleton to a similar structured fossil implies that extinct animal probably flew

State how fossil assemblages and trace fossils tell us something about how a fossil organism lived.

-fossil assemblages: finding fossils with other fossils; lived in the same environment or were all dumped in one spot by natural causes like a storm

-trace fossils: how they lived and where they lived; position of prints can show how the organism held itself up--ie the triceratops stance from the museum

Discuss how various types of geologic data (including several discussed in previous modules) can provide different types of information about a region's paleogeography (it's geography at some time in the past).

-fossil record, magnetic anomalies, relative/absolute dating, paleomagnetism, etc; each provide different info on the geography of the past