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Transcription
The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Initiation
The stage of transcription where RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of a gene.
Elongation
The stage of transcription characterized by the addition of nucleotides to the growing mRNA strand.
Termination
The stage of transcription when RNA polymerase crosses a termination sequence, ending RNA synthesis.
Codon
A group of three nucleotides on mRNA that specifies an amino acid.
Anticodon
A three-base segment on tRNA that is complementary to a codon on mRNA.
Genetic Engineering
A molecular technique to modify an organism's traits by introducing, enhancing, or modifying genes.
Transformation
A mechanism of gene transfer where a bacterium takes up external DNA from its environment.
Transduction
A mechanism of gene transfer in which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus.
Conjugation
A process of gene transfer in bacteria that involves the direct transfer of DNA between two cells.
Vectors
Organisms or agents that carry and transfer foreign genetic material into host organisms.
Plasmid
A small, circular DNA molecule found in bacteria, used in genetic engineering.
Restriction Enzyme
An enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences, acting as molecular scissors.
DNA Ligase
An enzyme that joins together DNA strands by forming bonds between them.
Genome
The complete set of genetic material within an organism.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
A method used to amplify specific DNA sequences.
Denaturation
The first step in PCR, where heat is used to separate DNA strands.
Annealing
The second step in PCR, where primers bind to their complementary DNA sequences.
Ligation
The process of joining DNA fragments together, often used in genetic engineering.
Microinjection
A method of introducing foreign DNA into a cell by direct injection.
Biolistics
A technique for transferring DNA into cells using a gene gun.
Population Bottleneck
A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events.
Founder Effect
A phenomenon where a small group from a population establishes a new population with a gene pool that is not representative of the original population.
Punctuated Equilibrium
The theory suggesting that species remain largely unchanged for long periods, interspersed with brief episodes of rapid evolution.
Homologous Structures
Anatomical features in different species that share a common ancestry.
Analogous Structures
Features in different species that perform similar functions but do not share a common evolutionary origin.
Vestigial Structures
Anatomical remnants that were important in the organism's ancestors but are no longer useful in the same way.
Binomial Nomenclature
The two-part naming system for organisms, consisting of genus and species.
Natural Selection
A process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
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