A6: Long-Term Memory: Structure

What are the rating results for Perfect and Askew (1994) experiment as a part of Implicit memory in everyday experience: advertising

Perfect and Askew (1994) experiment as a part of Implicit memory in everyday experience: advertising

What is Long-Term memory?

"Archive" of information about past events and knowledge learned

What does long-term memory work closely with?

Working Memory

How far does long-term memory storage stretch?

Storage stretches from a few moments ago to as far back as one can remember

In long-term memory, ______ memories are more detailed

More recent

What makes long-term memory different from short-term memory?

[So, for one thing, we have double dissociation.]

What is Double Dissociation (neuropsychology)?

1. Functioning STM but cannot form new LTM's

- Clive Wearing (British musicologist, herpesviral encephalitis caused HC damage)

- Henry Molaison (H.M.) (HC removed for epilepsy)

2. Poor STM but functioning LTM

- K.F. (27 yo woman, stroke damage left thalamus)

Graph of Brain Structures

Person. STM. LTM.

Clive Wearing. OK. Impaired.

H.M. OK. Impaired.

K.F. Impaired. OK.

What does the Free Real and the Serial position curve (Murdoch, 1962) do?

[A task where you get a list of words and you can recall them in any order.

What you can see here is that words at the beginning of the list tend to be recalled well (this is called the primacy effect - you are more likely to recall words at the beginning of the list). The long flat section proves that people forget the middle words. and then there is an advantage of words found at the end of the list (the recency effect).]

This hypothesis is that the PRIMACY effect shows the output of long-term memory. The RECENCY effect shows the output of short-term memory.

What is primacy effect?

The systematic advantage for the first items in the list

What is the recency effect?

The systematic advantage for the last items in the list

What is the hypothesis of the primacy effect?

It shows the output of long-term memory.

What is the hypothesis of the recency effect?

Shows the output of short-term memory.

Testing the explanation of the serial position curve (Rufus, 1971).

Primacy effect:

Primacy Effect: content of LTM

1. Common sense: rehearsal occurs

2. Earlier words can be rehearsed more

3. High performance for early words

4. Number of rehearsals (aloud) predictive of recall performance for early words (primacy)

Testing the explanation of the serial position curve (Rufus, 1971).

Recency effect:

Recency effect: Content of STM

1. No time to rehearse, but still high performance

2. Number of rehearsals (aloud) unrelated to performance for last words

What is the procedure for finding the importance of rehearsal for LTM?

Procedure:

- Free recall task (20 words)

---> Visual input - 5 seconds per word

- Participants are asked to rehearse aloud

- Experimenter counts number of times each word is rehearsed aloud throughout a trial

What are the results for finding the importance of rehearsal for LTM?

- Probability of recall for first part of the curve directly related to the number of rehearsals

---> shows that rehearsal has an effect on the strength of a trace in LTM, so it is needed

- No relationship in last part of the curve

---> No need to rehearse, because items are still in STM

What is the interpretation of the results of finding the importance of rehearsal for LTM?

1. Rehearsal is needed to maintain the primacy effect

- Means that rehearsal strengthens traces

- Rehearsal rate --> measure of trace strength

- So, for recall, they have to be retrieved in LTM

2. No rehearsal is needed for the recency effect

- End of list --> words are generally not rehearsed

- Means all words are readily available for recall because they are in STM

3. Difference between STM and LTM

Showing the use of separate stores by a SINGLE dissociation

- Use primary/recency effects to show existence and independence of two stores

- Reminder...

---> Two psychological processes A and B may rely on separate systems if it is possible to devise an experiment X that will influence process A without affecting process B (or vice-versa)

---> single dissociation

- General goal

---> to find conditions that have an effect on one part of the curve only

What did the Murdock (1962) experiment study?

showing the use of separate stores by a single dissociation

- Murdock (1962):

---> The Serial position effect of free recall

Material:

- Lists of 10, 15, 20, 30, or 40 words

Procedure: Standard free recall task

- Presentation rate: 1 word/sec. or 1 word/2 sec.

- 6 conditions (10-2/20-1, 15-2/30-1, 20-2/40-1)

Goals:

- Determine if number of words in the list has an influence on the shape of the serial position curve

- Determine if presentation rate can influence only the primacy effect (single dissociation)

---> slower rate = more time to rehearse

---> note that there is no rehearsal instructions here

What are the results of the Murdock (1962) experiment - the serial position effect of free recall?

Showing the use of separate stores by a single dissociation

Results: Curve shape

- Constancy in general curve shape

---> advantage for 3-4 first words

---> flat middle section

---> advantage for approx. last 6 words

- Adding words only has a lengthening effect on the middle section

Results: dissociation

- slower presentation rate enhances primacy effect only

What is the interpretation of the results of the Murdock (1962) experiment - the serial position effect of free recall?

Showing the use of separate stores by a single dissociation

Interpretation

- Primacy/Recency effects --> very robust

---> not dependent on list length

- People naturally use rehearsal as a strategy

- Slower presentation enhances rehearsal capacity

- Effect on the primacy effect (LTM), but not on the recency effect (STM)

- Once again, evidence for two separate stores

---> one that relies on rehearsal to memorize for recall

---> one that does't

- Single dissociation between STM and LTM

Showing the INDEPENDENCE of stores using a double dissociation

Reminder...

- Two psychological constructs A and B can be shown to be independent if it is possible to devise an "experiment X" that will influence construct A without affecting construct B AND another "experiment Y" that will influence construct B without affecting construct A

General Goal

- To find conditions that have an effect on the primacy and recency effects separately

What was the Glazner and Cunitz (1966) study for?

Showing the independence of stores using a double dissociation

What was the Glazner and Cunitz (1966) study - showing the independence of stores using a double dissociation?

- "experiments were carried out to test the hypothesis that the bimodal serial position curve in free recall is produced by output from two storage mechanisms: short-term and long-term."

- Goal: to provide evidence for the relationship between the recency effect and STM, and the primacy effect and LTM

---> added conditions to satisfy the logic of the double dissociation

What was Glanzer & Cunitz: Exp 1 (delay)?

Goal: eliminate recency effect while maintaining primacy effect

Rationale: if recency effect is due to words stored in STM, then imposing a delay between the end of list and cue to recall should reduce this effect

Procedure:

- Free recall task (15 words)

- 3 conditions: standard/delayed (2)

Standard graph:

List presentation --> see # --> free recall

Delayed graph:

List presentation --> see digit --> count aloud 10/30s. --> free recall

What were the results of Glanzer & Cunitz: exp 1 (delay)?

Results: serial position curves (delay)

No impact on primacy

Delay prevents recency

What is the interpretation of Glanzer & Cunitz: exp 1 (delay)?

1. By asking participants to count between the end of the list and recall

---> interference produced, so items in STM are forgotten

---> weaker recency effect (10 sec.) or no effect (30 sec.)

2. First items are still reported

---> Transferred in a more permanent store (LTM) from sufficient rehearsal

---> Primacy effect unchanged

3. Dissociation between STM and LTM

What was Glanzer & Cunitz: exp 2 (spacing)?

Goal: Enhancing primacy effect while maintaining recency effect

Rationale: If primacy effect is due to extra memorization resources (i.e., rehearsal) for initial words, then reading list slowly will increase effect

Procedure (replication from Murdoch):

---> Free recall task (20 words)

---> 3 conditions: standard/spaced (2)

Standard graph:

List presentation (3 seconds of space) -----> Free recall

Spaced graph:

List presentation (6 or 9 seconds of space) ----> Free recall

What were the results of Glanzer & Cunitz: exp 2 (spacing)?

1. Spacing influences primacy

2. Spacing has no effect on recency

What is the interpretation of Glanzer & Cunitz: exp 2 (spacing)?

- Once again, slower presentation (spacing) enhances rehearsal capacity

- Effect on primacy effect (LTM), but not on recency effect (STM)

---> Because rehearsal is not used for recency

---> reflects solely current STM capacity

- Evidence for two separate stores

---> one that relies on rehearsal to memorize for recall

---> one that doesn't

What is the conclusion of Glanzer & Cunitz: exp 2 (spacing)?

Delay before recall

1. Primacy

2. Recency

Slower presentation rate

1. Primacy

2. Recency

- Double dissociation was obtained

- Glanzer & Cunitz provided evidence in support of two independent memory stores

What does long-term memory consist of?

Caption: long-term memory can be divided into declarative memory and implicit memory. We can also distinguish between two types of declarative memory, episodic and semantic. There are a number of different types of implicit memory. Two of the main types are repetition priming and procedural memory.

So, in essence....

LONG TERM MEMORY

1. Explicit (conscious)

2. Implicit (not conscious)

Within....

EXPLICIT (CONSCIOUS)

1. Episodic (personal events)

2. Semantic (facts, knowledge)

Within...

IMPLICIT (NOT CONSCIOUS)

1. Priming

2. Procedural memory

3. Conditioning

What is explicit memory?

Explicit/Declarative: conscious memory

1. Episodic: personal events/episodes

2. Semantic: facts, knowledge

What is implicit memory?

Implicit/non-declarative: unconscious memory

1. Procedural

2. Priming: previous experience changes response without conscious awareness

What is episodic memory?

personal events/episodes

What is semantic memory?

Facts, knowledge

What is episodic memory a part of?

Explicit memory

What is explicit memory also called?

declarative memory

____: conscious memory

Explicit/declarative

What is semantic memory a part of?

Explicit/declarative memory

What is implicit memory also called?

Non-declarative memory

_____: unconscious memory

Implicit/non-declarative

what is priming?

previous experience changes responses without conscious awareness

Episodic vs. Semantic

Episodic

1. Specific events

2. Unique personal experience ("Autobiographical")

3. Concrete events

4. Encoded with context (encoding specificity)

5. Acquired immediately (here & now)

6. Allows mental time travel:

---> time-based information

---> spatio-temporal relations

7. REMEMBERING

Semantic

1. General facts/meanings

2. Not tied to experience (emotions/thoughts/sens.)

3. Abstract knowledge

4. Extracted from context

5. Acquired progressively in multiple contexts

6. Does not allow time travel

7. KNOWING

____ memory is "remembering"

Episodic

____ memory is "knowing"

Semantic

Separation of Episodic and Semantic Memories

1. K.C. (motorcycle accident damaged his HC)

- No episodic memory, cannot relive any events of his past [doesn't remember events about himself]

- Semantic memory intact, can remember general information about the past

2. Italian woman (encephalitis damaged her left temporal lobe)

- Impaired semantic memory

- Episodic memory for past events was preserved

- [so, you don't know facts about the world, but you remember all your experiences. so she could learn things through experiencing them. Like, she wouldn't know the capital of Indiana is Indianapolis, but she could remember that she visited the capital of Indiana.]

- Evidence from brain-imaging experiments that retrieving episodic and semantic memories activate different areas of the brain [photo shown on slides]

Who studied the limits of explicit memory?

Tulving, Schacter & Stark (1982):

- Priming effects in word-fragment completion...

What are the goals of "the Limits of Explicit Memory"?

1. Show an effect that could not be explained by explicit memory properties

2. Show a clear dissociation between implicit and explicit memory

What are the tasks of "the limits of explicit memory"?

1. Learning: studying a list of words in order to be tested on them later

2. Test: word completion/Standard recognition

What is the Tulving, Schacter, and Stark (1982) procedure?

Learning --> Retention --> Test 1 --> Retention --> Test 2

Learning box:

- Study list of words (1 word/5 seconds)

Retention box:

- 1 hour

Test 1 box:

1. Standard recognition

- Old words

- New words

- seen/not seen?

2. Word fragment completion

- Old word fragments

- New word fragments

A___IDO__ --> ANTIDOTE

_LLI_S_ --> ELLIPSE

Retention box:

- 7 days

Test 2 box:

1. Standard recognition

2. Word: fragment completion

Lecture: one group gets the standard recognition tests. the other get the word-fragment completion test.

What are the "Prediction/Results: 1-hour interval" of Tulving, Shacter, and Stark's (1982) experiment on the limits of explicit memory?

WORD FRAGMENT COMPLETION TASK

Prediction

- If memory is episodic or semantic, and fragments have never been memorized, then there should be no difference in performance between seen and unseen words in the word-fragment completion task

Result

- After 1 hour interval: Probability of completing a fragment using a word seen in the list is higher

- Advantage for old words

- Disadvantage for new words

What is the "Interpretation (1)" of Tulving, Shacter, and Stark's (1982) experiment on the limits of explicit memory?

WORD FRAGMENT COMPLETION TASK

1. Presence of repetition priming (Tulving, 1962)

- Presentation of a stimulus facilitates processing when the same stimulus reappears later in an identical or incomplete way

2. Repetition priming cannot be accounted for by explicit memory

3. A part of long-term memory is not explicit (episodic/semantic)

4. Alternative interpretation

- Participants use conscious recollection of words on the list to complete the fragments (explicit)

What are the "Prediction/Results: 7-day interval" of Tulving, Shacter, and Stark's (1982) experiment on the limits of explicit memory?

Prediction

- People use explicit memory in recognition tasks

- People tend to forget episodic information

- If forgetting in both tasks is different, then the word-fragment completion task relies on something other than explicit memory

Results

- Performance in recognition task decreases over 7 days

- Performance in word-fragment completion does not

What is the "Interpretation (2)" of Tulving, Shacter, and Stark's (1982) experiment on the limits of explicit memory? (the second test)

1. Repetition priming effect --> slow decline over time

2. Repetition priming does not rely on explicit memory

---> performance stays similar even when explicit memory fades

3. 1 experimental manipulation (retention interval) [whether it's an hour or a week]

4. 2 different tasks hypothetically based on different systems

5. Effect on one system but not the other

----> (single) dissociation between explicit memory and another non-explicit system. [what is this other system? implicit memory.]

[Lecture]

What is the branched graph of all of the subtypes of long-term memory called?

the Taxonomy of Long-Term Memory Systems (Squire, 1987, 2004)

What does explicit memory branch into?

EXPLICIT MEMORY branches into 2 parts:

1. Facts (semantic)

2. Events (episodic)

These two parts make up KNOWLEDGE

What kind of categorization is implicit memory?

An umbrella term

What does long-term memory branch into?

1. Explicit

2. Implicit

What makes up implicit memory?

1. Procedural (skills and habits)

2. Priming

3. Simple classical conditioning

4. Non associative learning

These four parts make up

What do the four parts of implicit memory come together to form?

Performance

What do the two parts of explicit memory come together to form?

Knowledge

So, what does it mean that implicit memory is an "umbrella term"?

everything that is NOT explicit memory.

Ex: driving a car, riding a bicycle

Procedural (skills and habits) as a part of implicit memory as a part of long-term memory

Ex: phobias, PTSD

Simple classical conditioning as a part of implicit memory as a part of long-term memory

Ex: Mimicking others

non associative learning as a part of implicit memory as a part of long-term memory

What are the characteristics of Implicit Memory (Squire, 2004)?

1. Expressed through performance (does not require conscious recollection)

2. Highly specialized

3. Memories revealed through reactivation of the learning systems

What are the forms of implicit memory (Squire, 2004)?

1. Procedural

- Motor skills: learning to ride a bicycle

- Perceptual-motor skills: learning to catch a ball

2. Priming

- Repetition/Conceptual

3. Simple classical conditioning

- learning associations

4. Non associative learning (miscellaneous learning)

- example: imitation learning (Skinner)

What is the Classification of memory tests (Neath, 1998) for implicit memory?

Explicit test: we ask the subject to access memory

Implicit test: we don't ask... but performance changes due to prior exposure

Test Instructions

Indirect. Direct.

Learning | Incidental.

instruc- |

tions |

(intent |

to | Intentional.

learn |

material).| Implicit Explicit

Memory Memory

Experiments. Experiments

_______________________________________________________

When the test instructions are INDIRECT and the learning instructions are INCIDENTAL, we get:

- QUICK IDENTIFICATION

- Stem-completion

When the test instructions are DIRECT and the learning instructions are INCIDENTAL, we get:

- STANDARD RECOGNITION

- Cued recall

When the test instructions are INDIRECT and the learning instructions are INTENTIONAL, we get:

- Implicit memory experiments

When the test instructions are DIRECT and the learning instructions are INTENTIONAL, we get:

- explicit memory experiments

What is one test on Implicit vs. Explicit memory?

Jacoby & Dallas (1981)

What did the Jacoby & Dallas (1981) experiment revolve around?

On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning

What was the goal of the Jacoby & Dallas (1981) experiment?

Show that a single experimental manipulation will have a different effect on the results of tests requiring implicit performance or explicit knowledge

What are the tasks of the Jacoby & Dallas (1981) experiment?

"levels of processing" type experiment

- 3 different orienting tasks

- 2 different tests

What is the procedure of the Jacoby & Dallas (1981) experiment?

Procedure/6 conditions

LEARNING

1. Typographical task

- Is an "E" present?

2. Rhyme Task

- Does X rhyme with train?

3. Semantic task

- Is the X the center of the nervous system

All of these learning X with the tests

Learning ----> Test

TEST

1. Standard recognition

- Presentation of a word

---> seen/not seen?

2. Quick identification

- Presentation of a word

---> 35 milliseconds

General prediction: Depth of processing effect

As the numbers increase in the graph, the depth of processing effect goes deeper.

What are the results/interpretation of the Jacoby & Dallas (1981) experiment?

1. level of processing (learning) influences recognition performance

2. But DOES NOT INFLUENCE quick identification performance

Interpretation

1. Strong relationship between depth and explicit memory

2. No relationship between depth and implicit memory

3. Dissociation between implicit and explicit memory

What is the definition of "Amnesia"?

Inability to form/recall memories

What are the forms of "Amnesia"?

1. Retrograde

2. Anterograde

3. Korsakoff

What is retrograde amnesia?

Forgetting past memories

What is anterograde amnesia?

not being able to form new memories

What is Korsakoff amnesia?

retrograde + aterograde

What are the general deficits on explicit knowledge as a part of "Amnesia"?

Free recall/Recognition (weiskrantz, 1982)

In Amnesia, what is a possibility in regards to skill learning?

Skill learning may still be intact (Dissociation)

1. Despite profound anterograde/retrograde amnesia

- Can't remember events/learning situation (explicit)

---> Ex: doctor saying hello

2. Show improvement in performance through time (implicit)

- Reading words in a mirror (Cohen & Squire, 1980)

- Solving a tactual maze (Milner & Teuber, 1968)

What is the neuropsychological dissociation between implicit/explicit in terms of Amnesia?

1. Graf, Squire, & Mandler (1984): The information that amnesic patients do not forget

2. Goal: Assess memory of amnesic/control patients

3. Tasks: 2 orienting tasks/Many different tests

4. Material

- 4 to 7-letter words arranged in lists of 10

- Stems (1st 3 letters of the word)

What is the procedure of the Graf, Squire, & Handler (1984) experiment?

Procedure/2 experiments

Learning ---> Test 1 ---> Test 2

LEARNING

1. Vowel Task

- Is an "E" present?

- Prevent elaborative semantic processing

2. Liking task

- Rate how much you like the word on a 5-point scale

- Encourage elaborative semantic processing

TEST 1

- Standard free recall for BOTH tasks

TEST 2

1. Experiment 1 cued recall

- "Use this 3-letter cue (beginning of an English word). Add letters to make word FROM THE LIST."

- GRE....

2. Experiment 3 Stem completion

- "Use this 3-letter cue (beginning of an English word). Add letters to make word out of the cue"

- GRE....

As the numbers increase, the depth of processing goes deeper (the liking task is deeper than the vowel task)

LECTURE: you do not need to know the dates or people involved in the study. The question might involve the name of the study, but then it would explain what the study means or did.

What are the results of Experiment 1 & 3 of the Graf, Squire, & Handler (1984) experiment?

Orienting task results merged

- Explicit memory of amnesic patients: significantly impaired

- Implicit memory is intact!

Graph:

1. Free recall amnesia % of words recalled very low

2. Cued recall amnesia % of words wayyyyy higher

What is the interpretation of the Graf, Squire, & Handler (1984) experiment?

- "In contrast to the conventional testing methods of free recall and recognition, which showed amnesic patients to be markedly impaired, the method of word completion revealed a normal tendency to produce previously presented words. (p. 174)"

- Neuropsychological dissociation supporting separate systems for explicit and implicit memory

- Amnesia now seen as explicit memory impairment

What was the Warrington and Weiskrantz (1968) experiment?

Implicit memory

- showed fragmented pictures, amnesic participants had to identify

Results: Performance improved even though the person doesn't remember training

What are some examples of Implicit Memory in Everyday Experience??

Advertising

- PROPAGANDA EFFECT

- Perfect and Askew (1994) asked participants to rate magazine ads (0...7);

- 2 training conditions:

---> incidental: participants read articles and saw target ads

---> deliberate: participants were asked to evaluate the 'pleasantness' of the target ads

- 2 kinds of ads at test (target vs. distractor)

- Rating were followed by a recognition test

What is the propaganda effect?

more likely to rate statements read or heard before as being true

What is the propaganda effect a part of?

Implicit memory in everyday experience: advertising

What are the rating results for the Perfect and Askew (1994) experiment as a part of Implicit memory in everyday experience: advertising?

1. For all 4 measures, target ads were preferred (lower rating) over distractor ads;

2. No difference between the incidental and deliberate condition;

3. Yet, targets in the deliberate condition were more likely to be recognized;

4. And the results are the same if we include only incidental items that were recognized;

5. BAD NEWS FOR CONSUMERS!!!

6. But it gets worse...

What is the importance of Implicit memory and everyday life: The News?

1. Implicit effects of ads will only make us buy things that we do not need;

2. But what about the news? [link]

3. 24-hour news cycle creates a competition to be the first station to report something important;

4. Which leads to many news that are not being sufficiently verified;

5. If they turn out to be false, they are later retracted; [but, does retracting news actually work??]

What is one important example of the importance of implicit memory and everyday life: the News?

One important example was the first Iraq war

What did the Lewandowski et al. (2005) experiment want to find out?

Question: does retracting news actually work?

What was the procedure of the Lewandowski et al. (2005) experiment (studied the importance of implicit memory and everyday life: the News)?

Lewandowski et al. (2005) asked participants in 3 countries to verify some facts about the Iraq war:

- US (main country at war)

- Australia (ally)

- Germany (against the war)

3. All participants were asked to rate their memory and the truth of 3 kinds of items

[All countries remembered the truth; all countries did not believe in the fictional facts; BUT Australia and US believed in the false retracted facts when Germany did NOT.]

[This is because Germany did not previously see the fake news in their lives because they did not support the war.]

What were the results of the Lewandowski et al. (2005) experiment (studied the importance of implicit memory and everyday life: the News)?

1. For germans and Australians:

- Certainty of retraction decreased perceived truth ratings;

2. For Americans:

- No relationship.

[whether people were certain or not that something had been retracted did not affect if they believed it or not in the US.]

[This is nothing to do with the US, but rather has to do with what news we are being exposed to. it is affecting us implicitly.]

Week Summary (1):

1. Long-term memory is an archive of information about past experiences;

2. It can be dissociated from working memory using neuropsychological evidence, but also the serial position curve;

3. The primacy effect is thought to tap on long-term memory;

4. The recency effect is thought to tap on working memory;

5. Long-term memory can be dissociated between explicit (aware) and implicit (not aware) memory;

Week summary (2):

1. Explicit memory can be further decomposed into episodic (remembering) and semantic (knowing) memories;

2. Episodic and semantic memory relies on different brain networks (neuropsychology + neuroimaging);

3. Implicit memory is a "catch all" term for memories that we are not aware of;

4. Implicit memory is preserved in amnesia;

5. Implicit memory affects our everyday life (e.g., publicity, news).

Example question: Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus....

Facilitates the response to another stimulus