psych exam 2

from study guide

selective attention

focusing on specific information while ignoring other information

inattentional blindness

failing to detect available stimuli due to selective attention

 change blindness

failing to detect changes in stimuli due to selective attention

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

small region of the brain in the hypothalamus sensitive to changes in light, controls circadian rhythm

How does light affect the SCN

Tells SCN when to send signals to secrete melatonin

pineal gland

SCN directs pineal gland to secrete/stop secreting melatonin

melatonin

hormone that causes sleepiness

artificial lighting

Confuses SCN, interferes with circadian rhythm

N-REM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep

N1

light sleep

Hypnic or hypnagogic jerk

brief and sudden involuntary contraction of the muscles while falling asleep

hypnagogic hallucination

vivid sensory experiences while falling asleep

N2

true sleep, brain activity slows, reductions in heart rate and muscle tension

N3

deep sleep, slowest brain waves, hard to awaken, disoriented when awakened, growth hormones released (healing)

REM sleep

brain waves resemble wakefulness, eyes move back and forth, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing are rapid or irregular, sleep paralysis, “paradoxical”, dreams

Paradoxical sleep

Active brain doesn’t match still body

Sleep paralysis

Temporary feeling of paralysis when falling asleep or waking up from REM

Theories of sleep

Evolutionary/adaptive, restorative, information processing

Evolutionary/adaptive theory

protection by not being out and vulnerable to predators in the dark, hard to find evidence 

Restorative theory

sleep supports growth and healing, builds immune system functioning, production of growth hormones,

Information processing theory

sleep supports cognitive processes, supports learning, restores and rebuilds memories

sleep deprivation

slower healing, weaker immune system, Irritability, mood disruption, increased risk of depression & obesity

Freudian dream theory

dreams stem from unconscious thoughts

Manifest content

what actually happened in dream

Latent content

the unconscious thoughts, feelings, and wishes behind the manifest content

Activation synthesis dream theory

brain’s internally generated signals form dreams

Information processing dream theory

memories of events form dreams

Preserving neural pathways dream theory

purpose of dreaming is to provide brain stimulation

Studies of genetic contributions to traits and behavior

Adoption studies, twin studies, adoption twin studies

Adoption studies

compare adopted children to adoptive families and biological families

Twin studies

compare pairs of monozygotic (identical) and same-sex dizygotic (fraternal) twins

Adoption twin studies

compare MZ twins separated in infancy and MZ twins raised together

Reflexes

automatic responses to a specific stimulus

Primative reflexes

Sucking, rooting, moro, grasping, babinski 

Piaget’s approach to cognitive development

children’s intelligence develops in universal stages through observation and interaction with the world

schema

a mental framework that helps organize and interpret information

Assimilation

fitting new information into present system of knowledge (schema)

Accommodation

as a result of new information, change existing schema

Piaget’s stages

Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operations stage, Formal operations stage

Sensorimotor stage

birth to 2 years, use looking, sucking, grasping, and listening to understand environment, develop object permanence  

object permanence

understanding that something continues to exist even when it cannot be seen

Preoperational

age 2-7, egocentric, animistic thinking, doesn’t understand conservation

egocentric

difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own

animistic thinking

attribute life to objects

conservation

understanding that physical properties do not change when appearance changes

Concrete operational

age 7-11, understands conservation, reversibility, and transitivity

reversibility

a stimulus that has been changed can return to its original state

transitivity

understanding how components in a series are related (if A>B and B>C, then A>C)

Formal operations

age 11-adullthood, abstract and systematic reasoning, thinking about future possibilities

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development

emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in learning, Cognitive development results from guidance

 zone of proximal development

level at which a child can almost perform a task independently

Scaffolding

teacher adjusts amount of support to child’s level of development

theory of mind

understanding of how other people think

band aid box study

Kids shown Band-Aid box, asked what was inside, Kids were surprised to find pencils in box

 Erikson’s stage theory of social development

a series of eight stages that a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood, each characterized by a specific conflict that marks a turning point in development

Trust vs. mistrust

infancy (to 1 year), if needs are dependably met infants develop a sense of basic trust, “Whom can I trust?”

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

toddlers (ages 1-3) learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities, independence, self-control, “How can I do what I want without feeling bad about myself?

Initiative vs. guilt

Preschoolers (age 3-6) learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent, “What can I do without causing trouble?”

Industry vs. inferiority

Children (age 6-puberty) learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior, Sense of competence or inadequacy, “What am I good at? How do i compare to others?”

Identity vs. confusion

(adolescence) Stable sense of who one is and what one’s values are or identity confusion “Who am I? Where do I belong?”

Intimacy vs. isolation

(early adulthood) Establish enduring committed relationships, “Whom can I trust with intimacy and love”

Generativity vs. stagnation

(Midlife) Generativity (generate things that contribute to the future or stagnation (see life as meaningless) “How can I continue to grow as a person?”

Integrity vs. despair

(Late life) Ego integrity (feeling that one’s life has coherence and purpose) or Despair (disappointment, regret) “How can I feel content with my life so I can face death calmly?”

Harlow’s studies of infant attachment

Monkey was more attached to furry cloth mother than metal despite metal providing food, demonstrating importance of contact, comfort, and affection in attachment

How did Mary Ainsworth study attachment

“Strange situation” experiment, a series of eight episodes lasting aprox 3 minutes each, where a mother, infant, and stranger are introduced, separated, and reunited

Mary Ainsworth attachment findings

secure, insecure-anxious/ambivalent, insecure-avoidant

secure

children with a strong sense of trust and comfort with their caregivers, typically due to caregivers consistently responding sensitively to their needs (child cried when mom left, stopped when she came back)

secure base

caregiver providing a safe and supportive environment for infants and children to explore the world

Insecure- anxious/ambivalent

children who experience mixed feelings of dependency and anger toward their caregiver due to inconsistent emotional caregiving (child cried when parent left and continued when came back, might even turn to stranger)

Insecure- avoidant 

emotional distance, independence, and minimal visible reliance on caregivers (little reaction to parent coming or going) 

What contributes to attachment styles

Temperament, Stressful home life, Parenting

long term affects of infant attachment style

size of vocabulary, interpersonal interaction, emotions

Langlois et al.’s (1995) study

Infants rated for attractiveness, results: attractiveness → affection

Baumrind’s 2 dimensions of parenting

warmth (responsiveness) and control (demandingness) → 4
styles (Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Uninvolved/neglectful)

Authoritarian

low warmth, high control (Lower grades, lower self-esteem)

Permissive 

high warmth, low control (Easily frustrated, low self-control)

Authoritative

high warmth, high control (most optimal, higher grades, cooperative)

Uninvolved/neglectful

low warmth, low control (least effective and most detrimental, low self-esteem, emotionally detached)

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

outlines the different levels and stages of moral reasoning that individuals go through as they develop their understanding of right and wrong

3 stages of moral development

Preconventional morality, Conventional morality, Postconventional morality

Preconventional morality

Ages 4-10, avoid punishment or gain reward, externally based

Conventional morality

After age 10, “Law and order”, behave morally to be perceived as a good person, based on rules, internalized but not independent 

Postconventional morality

early adolescent/young adult, individual values and conscience

Heinz dilemma

a moral question proposed by Kohlberg to child partcipants on whether or not a man (Heinz) should steal drugs for his dying wife 

delay of gratification

ability to forego smaller, immediate rewards for greater rewards later

Marshmallow test

Children in a study given the choice of 1 marshmallow now or 2
marshmallows in a few minutes (Mischel, 1961)

socioemotional selectivity theory

A life-span theory of motivation that explains how people's goals and emotions change with age (Carstensen, 1995)

sensation

process by which sensory organs obtain information about the environment and transmit it to the brain

Perception

the organization of sensations into interpretations

transduction 

translation of physical energy into electrical signals

Bottom-up processing

starts with raw sensory data that gets communicated to the brain

Top-down processing

starts with observer’s expectations and knowledge

Absolute thresholds

minimal amount of stimulation that can be detected half of the time

Difference thresholds (the jnd)

smallest difference in intensity between 2 stimuli that a person can detect

Weber’s law (fraction)

for 2 stimuli to be perceived as different in intensity, the second must differ from the first by a constant proportion

Sensory adaptation

Reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure to it

Signal detection theory

The detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/psychological state of the individual (ex. noticing noises) 

Response bias

person’s readiness to report detecting a stimulus (ex. doctor reporting brain tumor)

hits

Correctly detecting a present signal (ex. doctor correctly finds tumor and treats it)

misses

Failing to detect a signal when it is present (ex. doctor doesn’t find present tumor)