anthro 1aa3 final

contextual anthropology

contextual anthropology

circumstances, environments, beliefs and how they shape human behaviour

holistic anthropology

goal is to understand the whole picture of the human condition: both biological and cultural

subfields of anthro

1) biological/ physical
2)archaeology
3)cultural
4)linguistics

sociocultural anthro

study of contemporary cultures/ societies. uses methodology and ethnography

methodology & ethnography

-participant observation
-description of an aspect of culture within a society (product)

archaeology
1) prehistoric
2)historical

study of past societies, and their cultures, using material remains
1) no written docs, oral history evidence from recovered artifacts
2)work on more recent societies, integrate historical evidence (written)

linguistic anthropology
1)structural
2)sociolinguistics
3)historical

use of lang by human societies
1)how lang works
2)relationship b/w lang and social behaviour in diff cultures
3) how langs are related to each other & how they've changed over time

physical/ biological anthropology

all aspects of biology and behaviour of human species (and relatives) past and present
evolutionary perspectives, bicultural perspectives (interaction b/w bio and culture ...interested in diversity of pops, holistic, takes many research methods/ approaches.

osteology

study of human skeleton, central to physical anthro, study structure and function of skeleton, important for understanding changes in fossil material and adaptations in living population.

paleoanthropology

study of human fossil record, what does it meant to be human?

primatology

study of nonhuman primates, social behaviour, communication, infant care, reproduction... understand natural forces that have shaped human human evolution and aspects of human behaviour

human biology

growth and development, adaptation to enviro extremes, human variation in modern pop

forensic anthro

anthro and the law: applied approach, accidental death, crime scene investigation, human rights investigations
-research, recovery, analysis
-do biological profile
-forensic anthro(/ coroner) make final determination of cause/ manner of death

applied anthro

uses data gathered from other subfields of anthro in effort to offer practical solutions to problems within modern societies

scientific method
1) inductive approach
2)deductive approach

systematic observations of the world. way of knowing world around us thru observation... results in ever-expanding knowledge base.
1)bottom up: observation, pattern, tentative hypothesis, theory
2)top down: theory, hypothesis, observation, confirmation

what is a theory?

1)functionalism
2)structuralism

explains observations and unifies seemingly distinct phenomenon. developed through scientific method, explains how things work.
can be modified by new evidence, are correctable. formed by repeatedly verified hypotheses. becomes generally accepted explanation of scientific phenomena: framework for understanding observations, ideas, patterns etc.
1)understands aspects of society in relation to whole (viewed as an organism)
2)explores the variety of ways that cultures/ societies are structured (related to human development and identity)

medical anthro

subfield of cultural anthropology
study of human health and human health systems: healthcare/ bioculture adaptation

ethnomedicine /ethno-etiology

cross cultural study of health and health studies: mainly part of socio-cultural anthro but linked w/ other subfields (biological)

"Health System"

all cultures have one
-perceptions and beliefs about body
-classification of health probe
-preventative measures
-healing/ healers

1) illness
2) disease

1)perceptions and experiences of a health prob
2) biological health problem: universal (@ root of illness)

Hippocrates model / theory of sickness

ancient greek: 460 BC
based on balance of humours
belief the body should be treated as a whole
Drs today take hippocratic oath

4 humours

levels determine health/well-being
blood (heart-lively), phlegm(water-lethargic/dull), yellow(bile, spleen, depression)/ black bile (liver- anger)

hot/wet skin= blood
cold/ wet= phlegm

Blood Letting (purging/ starvation etc)

most sick ppl- excess heat/ moisture ( fever/ sweating/ cough)
blood letting restored balance
-offered by barbers in 18/19th centuries
-illness came from being " out of humour"
- still used in parts of world (india)

hot-cold theory of disease

important aspect of Latin-American folk medicine practice
-emphasis on body in balance
-extension of hippocrates theory

Miasma model of sickness

-harmful air causing disease: esp. fumes of tainted/ decaying matter
-disease = locally based + natural condition of earth: meant quarantine/ sanitation didn't play a part (can't protect yourself from a smell)

contagonist model of disease

spread through contact of germs (can protect w/ sanitation)

germ theory

most important model in western med : 1590s- 1600s
-from microscope innovation: cells
-disease specificity....diff germs cause diff diseases

Western Biomedicine

body as a machine- "repair"
-emphasis on microorganisms (treatment= kill these to eliminate diseases)
-body as battlefield

susto (a folk illness)

soul loss
-separation of body/ soul
-induced by traumatic/ distressing fright
-western: treat as stress w/ prozac
-susto cured w/ rituals

fossils

remains of goes/ living materials preserved from earlier periods

middens

ancient trash piles holding info on past societies tools/ work/ beliefs

ethnocentrism

judging another society by values and standards of own society

lithic technologists

experts on stone technology

zooarchaeologists

specialists on animal bones

disease of development

health probe caused/ increased w/in a society: many forms of healing

applied medical anthro

used to further goals of health care providers

medical pluralism

multiple health systems in a society w/ many forms of healing

applied medical anthro

used to further goals of health care providers

cultural broker

someone familiar w/ 2 cultures and can promote communication/ understanding b/w

sati

suicide of wife upon husbands death

ethnocide

destruction of culture w/o killing

1)osteology
2)osteobiography

1)branch of anatomy that deals w/ structure and function of bones
2)aspects of life history recorded in skeleton

biological profile

age @ death , sex, bio ancestry, living stature, injury/ illness, way of life

paleodemography

takes osteobiological sample and analyzes data to learn about pop

biological affinity

/relatedness- reflects genetic mixing from diff local/ regional areas and natural selection/ genetic drift

trephination/ trepanation

surgical removal of pt of skull (to relieve pressure/ headache/ mental illness/ ritual)

perimortem trauma

evidence of violence around time of death (no healing)

taphonomists

study ways in which natural processes affect body from death to decomposition/ discovery- helps determine length of time dead and nature of trauma

repatriation

returning art to original site

paleopathology

study of disease/ injury in human skeleton
-subfield of physical anthro
-considers how nutrition, immune, age, social, enviro affect expression of disease

osteological paradox

only sm % exhibit skeletal lesions:diseases only affect skeleton in chronic phases: need good immune to survive disease
evidence: low bone density, cavities, fossilized (coprolites) feces

Epidemiological Transition Theory

studies the determinants, dynamics, distribution of disease based on world wide data

1st Epidemiological transition

~10,000ya
food production altered human relationships w/ enviro: changes in diet, sedentary: increase in pop... increase in zoonoses, increase waste ...herd diseases

zoonoses

swine-influenza
cattle-bovine tuberculosis
goats- Mediterranean fever
rats-louse/ flea borne diseases
sheep- scrapple/ prion disease

2nd epidemiological transition

industrialization , 200-300 ya
chronic/degenerative diseases increase, increased longevity due to tech/ science improvements (eg.vaccines)
increase in food supply, pop and urbanization

3rd epidemiological transition

less than 25 years ago: infectious diseases reemerge
enviro degradation, antibiotic resistance
tuberculosis, HIV/AIDs, SARS
interactions of social/ enviro ppl in contact w/ pathogens

Harvard Criteria for death (5)

1. unreceptive/ unresponsive
2. no spontaneous movement/ respiration
3. no reflexes
4.flat EEG (activity in brain)
5. no circulation to/ within body

infanticide/ femicide in india

direct/ indirect killing of offspring b/c of gender (or other reasons)
northern: daughter financial strain- dowry
southern: daughter valuable-bride price and rice cultivation

bioarchaeology

studies human skeleton in archaeological context: health, diet, habitual activities, mobility...only what leaves trace on skeleton.. nutritional deficiencies ( bending bones= vit d)
diet-teeth...work-activity markers
trauma or intentional cultural modifications (foot binding)

body decomposition
1)autolysis
2) putrefaction
3) factors affecting
4) preservation

1)degen of body tissues by digestive fluids
2)bacteria reproducing and consuming tissue
3)temp, humidity, access by insects, burial & its depth, carnivore/ rodent activity, trauma, clothing
4)affected by: certain soils, chem conditions, fossilization

1)manner of death
2) cause of death

1)legal circumstances of death (natural, homicide, suicide etc.)
2)medical circumstances (heart failure, blood loss, disease etc.)

10 key Q's forensic anthropologists ask

1. is it bone 2. is it human 3. modern or archaeological
4. what bones/teeth are present 5. how many individuals are present (MNI: minimum # of indivs) 6. what is the sex
7.what is the age (teeth/ bone development...fusion of epiphyses) 8. what is the ancestry 9.what is the stature 10.are there any unique characteristics

6 classes of nutrients

1.carbs 2.fats 3. protein/ amino acids 4.vitamins 5. minerals 6. water

1. macronutrients
2. micronutrients

1. needed in large amounts
2. needed in small amounts to regulate production of energy from macro

examples of food and religion

Adam/ Eve and forbidden fruit
catholic eucharist; bread/ wine =body/blood of christ through transubstantiation (changing form)
Jewish passover
Ramadan fast of muslims

algonquin tribes feast of the dead

dig up bones, move to communal burying ground called ossuary. 10 days: prepare new bodies for burial. done by women. bones go back to relative w/ gifts and big meal

Aztec ritual sacrifice/ cannibalism

have to bring food to gods who needed nectar: human blood/flesh. feeding sun= warriors business. offerings= prisoners of war. hearts torn: blood in vessel, roll body down pyramids, brought to temple and eaten.

mexico day of the dead

feast of dead to remember them and the continuity of life. they decorate graves/ picnic: souls of dead around sharing meals.

food & celebrations

birthday cake, thanksgiving turkey, halloween candy

food as competition

hotdog eating. potlach ceremony: public distribution of property....giving gifts/ circulating food/ crops...validating important people's status

Food as
1.symbol
2. icon
3. w/ social context

1.symbol (biological and cultural) linked to status/ power (potlatch)
2.celebrities: bobby flay
3.defines/ maintains social relations (food is social). 1st meeting= coffee, brunch= get together w/ family

Early food production: first evidence

Near East
-wild grasses 12,000 BCE
-domesticated grains 10,000 BCE
-influences: geography (mountains: no agriculture), access to water (rice, need more water, wheat: less water)
-irrigation systems: 5000BC
-growing conditions: temp, seasons, sunlight: growing periods affected

Universals in Human food use

-omnivorous diet: eat many things
-cooking food
-intensive food prep
-elaborate systems of food (sharing/ exchange)
-food prohibition/ taboos of food

food classification

according to culture
-edible/ inedible
-male/ female
-hot/ cold
-wet/dry

hot/ cold food classification

common in Latin America and Asia: greek health theory,using hot/ cold foods to heal four humours

Food restrictions/ taboos

-some apply to all cultures some to few indivs
-food preferences
-periodical denial of foods (pregnancy)
-taboo=deliberate avoidance of food item for reasons other than simple dislike
-pigs:muslim, jewish, ethiopian orthodox, christian
-cows: hindu- even by products are sacred

explaining food taboos

-markers of group identity
-protection against diseases (raw pork)
-ecological theories: ecology of pigs/ sacred cow: "probably that elimination of meat came about in slow, practical manner. farmers not eating their cows to save for procreation...if you eat your oxen you lose your work for farming (plowing etc)

reasons for food taboos

early anthro= quirk of culture
enviro= not suitable for area/ scarce
medical reasons = unhealthy
economic= more value alive
symbolic= unnatural
social = increase cohesion/ reinforce differences

Marvin Harris on Dogs

dogs= service: transport, hunting, protection....only eaten in cultures where their services aren't needed

6 factors of food examination

1. production 2. preparation 3. distribution 4. consumption 5.disposal 6. social aspects

Sustenance affects (3 things)

1. settlement patterns (foragers: sm/ temporary...agriculture lg/ permanent)
2. population (carrying capacity)
3. division of labour (sex/ age /status)

Ju'Hoansi

foragers of Kalahari Desert
-gather 70%/ hunt 30% of food
-no private property or hierarchies/ authorities
-meat: sacred, insult meat, distribution
-hxaro: gifting "i give you this now, in future you give to me" (arrows for hunting, arrow owner= who distributes meat)

foragers
ex. ju'hoansi

pop= sm w/ strategies to curb pop
soc/cultural: little property, communal sharing, open access to land/ labour/ production

pastoralism
ex. the Brasseri

pop: varies/ nomadic
combined sustenance strategies by foraging/ sm farms
-land/ labour: ownership/ control of resources, division of labour
-Brasseri: iran, travel b/w high/ low land live in sm settlements

horticulture
ex. Zuni

larger surplus= larger pop
slash/ burn: plant/burn/ rotate
division of labour: equal
zuni= new mexico, shift from foragers w/ intro of corn

agriculture

emergence of class of producers whose surplus benefits a ruling class
impact: changed way we interact w/ enviro from dependency on natural resources to control, major diet changes, change in demography, economy, urbanization
village life= domestication/ sedentism. investment in agriculture, increase pop, increase in complexity/ larger social groups

downfalls of agriculture

-decrease health/ nutritional status
-dependence on 1 crop: potential for failure
-change texture/ quality of food
-uneven distribution
-anemia, dental/ bone health
-more zoonoses, waste/ herd diseases (person to person)

Urban Roots movie

modes of sustenance= gardens, urban farming, sedentary pasturalists, horticulture/ agriculture
food desert= urban area in which its difficult to buy affordable/ good quality fresh food
social effects of urban agriculture: ppl working in gardens, less stressed, markets bring ppl together

paleoanthropology

subfield of biological/ physical sciences
study of fossils and human ancestors
study hominids (humans and their direct ancestors)

fossils

organic material (ex. bone) is replaced by minerals from surrounding soil- petrification.
-preserves hard/ soft parts, forms a mould
-earliest fossils found in east/ south africa

oldest fossil hominids: Ardipithecus ramidus

~5.8-5.2mya in Ethiopia
-35 examples found w/ ape like anatomy: big toes (opposable) bipedal (hallmark of hominids, these ones lived in forest)
-established link w/ chimps

characteristics of hominids

sm front teeth/ lg molars
bipedal & associated anatomical adaptations
increase manual dexterity

Australopithecus afarensis

~3.6-3.0 mya
Lucy (40% of bones recovered) : 3.5-4 ft tall
ethiopia and other sites

laetoli site in Tanzania

fossilized foot print was found

features of biped

position of foramen magnum/ base of skull moves farther up
s-shaped spinal curves to keep torso balanced over hips
shape of pelvis: broad and low helps centre of gravity/ bowl holds organs against gravity, foot: arch/ big toe, Shape of the pelvis—broad and low...Length of lower limbs=longer relative to apes. Angle on the femur, angled inward, Allow us to extend knee fully. Enlargement of the big toe, also in line with other toes, opposable toe line- imp for stability and extra spring in foot/ for weight distribution.
Differences in pelvis of :
§ chimpanzee: long, narrow hips, divergent big toe
§ homo sapiens: wider, bowl shaped, squatter pelvis, inline toe
§ Australopithecus africanus: bowl shaped pelvis, inline toe, tells us biped

why biped developed theories

tool use? - no, earliest tools 2.5 mya
efficient scavenging/ long distance travel/ predator avoidance
man as hunter, 2 parent family/ division of labour
food sharing/ carrying
carrying offspring, enhanced heat loss, communication

The Australopithecines / Genus Australopithecus

~4.2-1.8 mya, many diff species recognized:
A. amamensis- 4mya
A. afarensis (Lucy)
A. africanus 3.3-1 mya
A. garhi 2.5 mya
A. aethiopicus 2.4 mya
found in east/ south africa
characterized by biped

features of Australopithecines
robust/ grassile

clearly bipedal ,lg teeth , sm brains
mosaic evolution: features developing @ diff rates
robust: lg skull/ teeth
grassile: slender skulls

Australopithecus boisei
(presently in diff genome: paranthropus boisei)

2.3-1.2 mya (became extinct 1mya)
brain size = 510cc(sm increase), features on skull adapted for chewing touch foods, lg muscle anchors, flared cheekbones, thought to have varied diet. nutcracker man

earliest evidence for homo

~2.8-1.4 mya
relatively larger brain (~20% larger than australopithecines)
evidence of stone tools