USA BOOK 2: Change & Continuity in U.S Foreign Policy 1890-1941

When was Woodrow Wilson president?

1913 to 1921

What was Woodrow Wilson’s ‘New Freedom’?

Used to describe his general purpose - to create conditions of greater economic opportunity (for labour, farmers, and small business)

What did Wilson’s New Freedom do for big business?

keep corporations under control and at arms length

What slogan showcases Wilson’s neutrality?

‘he kept us out of war’ This slogan was used to highlight Wilson's efforts to maintain American neutrality during World War I before the U.S. entered the conflict during his run for presidency

Who campaigned against Wilson’s pacifist stance?

The Republicans and other interventionist groups criticised Wilson's pacifism and advocated for greater mobilisation and preparedness

What was ‘moral diplomacy’?

the desire to do good would govern American politics

Give an example of moral diplomacy in wilson’s policy

USA gave colombia $20 million in reparations for their role in encouraging the panaminians to rebel from colombian rule in 1903. What

What was wilson’s ‘Just Government’?

A foreign policy approach prioritizing ethical considerations and the promotion of democracy and human rights. - oppose dictatorships or revolutionary govts.

What did Wilson mean by ‘I am going to teach the south american republics to elect good men’

Wilson believed that he could influence Latin American countries to adopt democratic principles by promoting good governance and supporting leaders who aligned with these values.

What was Wilsonialism?

Wilsonialism is a foreign policy ideology based on President Woodrow Wilson's principles, emphasising democracy, self-determination, and moral diplomacy in international relations.

What was Wilson’s justification for intervening in neighbouring countries due to a moral obligation to improve them?

‘least bad solution’

In what way was Wilson progressive?

• He introduced significant changes to the constitution which extended the role of the federal govt.

• He promoted social reforms, such as women's suffrage and labor rights, and aimed to expand democracy and civil rights.

• highly significant financial reforms including the first ever income tax

What took the Roosevelt Corollary to a new level?

Wilson declared the future co-operation in Latin America would only be possible with ‘just’ government, the implication being that he would oppose military dictatorships or revolutionary govt.

What problems were there concerning neutrality?

• Pro-british feeling

• Anti-German feeling

• Freedom of seas

• Trade

Why was a Pro-british feeling a problem for neutrality?

Wilson had natural preferences for british culture and customs

Why was a Anti-German feeling a problem for neutrality?

• Wilson felt Germany posed a threat to US interests (better to fight w/ allies than alone)

• Germany had a growing interests in Latin America especially Mexico

• Americans had confrontations w/ Germany in Samoa in 1889

Why was Trade a problem for neutrality?

• Favoured the allies (effectiveness of trade with the allies meant trade was 10 times the trade with the central powers)

• make a lot of money selling to countries at war

Why was Freedom of Seas a problem for neutrality?

• allowed countries at war to blockade enemy ports and seize cargo classified as contraband which could loosely be defined as anything useful to the enemy

• caused conflict between britain and US as Britain was seizing US ships even if they were just containing food

[American Entry to WW1] What was the Lusitania?

The sinking of the British ship, the Lusitania (may 1915) with 128 Americans among the 1200 dead

[American Entry to WW1] What was the significance of the Lusitania?

Wilson responded warning Germany he would hold them responsible for the loss of American lives on ships sunk by Germany

[American Entry to WW1] What was the Resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare?

31st Jan 1917 Germany gave 8 hours notice it intended to sink all ships found within the war zone around british waters

[American Entry to WW1] What was the significance of the Resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare?

• 3rd Feb - broke off diplomatic relations with Germany - still hoped to avoid entry into the war.

• During feb-march 1917 several US ships were sunk by German U-boats

[American Entry to WW1] What were the German activities within the USA?

Germans spying & committing acts of espionage within the UK

[American Entry to WW1] What was the significance of German activities within the USA?

Presence of internal traditions fuelled further resentment against Germany

[American Entry to WW1] What was the Zimmerman Telegram?

A coded telegram from Germany to Mexico proposing an aliance that if they went to war, Mexico would receive texas, arizona, and New Mexico

[American Entry to WW1] What was the significance of the Zimmerman Telegram?

Wilson was affronted by this telegram and it afforded him further pretext for war

[American Entry to WW1] What was the declaration of war?

April 1917, Wilson asked congress for the authority to make war on Germany

[American Entry to WW1] What was the significance of the declaration of war?

• USA had been provoked until its credibility was threatened.

• The Allies were in trouble and feared defeat was likely.

[Historian views on American entry into WW1] What does Fordham say?

Isolationist

• Wilson was swayed by big business into war

[Historian views on American entry into WW1] What does Deger 1950s say?

Wilson say self interest as unimportant in his declaration of war - more legalistic (unrestricted submarine warfare is a CRIME)

[Historian views on American entry into WW1] What did Kennedy 2008 say?

• Wilson shared allied war aims

• collective security could only come about if countries trusted each other (blamed european reliance on balance of power 4 military expansionism)

[Historian views on American entry into WW1] What did Brogan 1960s say?

Germans gave wilson no choice - did not necessarily shared allies (fighting for a better world not to defeat germany and its allies)

[Positives of the war for America] What did standardised accounting practices do?

raised wages for employees and increased passenger rates (railroads)

[Positives of the war for America] What did food production increase from to?

12.5 million to 18.6 million tons per year and farmers incomes grew by 30% 1915-1918

[Positives of the war for America] what happened to wages in the steel industry?

they doubled

[Positives of the war for America] What were black experiences in the war like?

black experiences abroad helped develop a sense of black consciousness and determination to improve conditions on their return

[Positives of the war for America] How did loans and bonds impact the economy?

successful in preparing the economy for conflict

[Negatives of the war for America] What were america not prepared for?

Massive war productions - 8.8 mil artillery rounds fired by US troops fewer than 8,000 were manufactured in the US

[Negatives of the war for America] what lead to accusations of war profiteering?

war industries board

[Negatives of the war for America] what did women suffer?

• unequal pay

• poor promotion

• little job security

[Negatives of the war for America] What discrimination continued?

• black discrimination - serious riots against African American presence in Northern cities

• black experiences of less racist attitudes added racial tension back at home

• African Americans expected to be patriotic yet faced unfair treatment

What was the war industries board and why was it good and bad?

its purpose was to regulate production and manufacturing, as well as allocation of wartime goods.

positive:

• big profits

Negative:

• war profiteering accusations

What were Wilson’s 14 points?

• aimed at peace

• orderly relations w/ others

• self-determination

What was the peace conference in Paris, 1919?

• most decisions at the conference were made by the ‘big 3’ - USA, Britain, and France

• Priority for America to gain acceptance in the LoN

Why did Wilson’s campaign to join the LoN fail?

• Wilson was very uncompromising

• illness - Wilson collapsed after a speech in Colorado

• not enough support in the senate

What was the aim of foreign policy after 1919?

to create a world order in which the USA could prosper

because of their aims, what did foreign policy emphasise after 1919?

• preventing another war by controlling the arms race

• maintaining america’s economic supremacy

What were American foreign policy problems?

• how to keep political and economic control in Latin America

• how to contain Germany, but allow it to recover economic stability and be part of the world financial system

• how, as Germany recovered, to reassure France about its security

• How to recover war debts (mainly owed to America) from the allies, and reparations from Germany

• How to manage competition in the Far East, especially in China, and particularly how to persuade Japan to respect European/American interests

• How to cope with the Soviet Union and its revolutionary beliefs

When was Warren G. Harding president

1921 - 1923

When was the return to normalcy?

1919-1932

What was the return to normalcy?

returning to isolationism - inward looking

What was the Washington Disarmament Conference 1921?

international conference called by the United States to limit the naval arms race and to work out security agreements in the Pacific area

What was the dawes plan 1924?

Under the Dawes Plan, Germany's annual reparation payments would be reduced, increasing over time as its economy improved

What was the Kellogg-Briand pact 1928?

countries agreed to disarm (give up or reduce armed forces) and not use 'aggression' to resolve disagreements

What was the young plan 1929?

reduced the total amount of reparations demanded of Germany to 121 billion gold marks, almost $29 billion, payable over 58 years

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Economic] US investment in Latin America doubled in the years 1924-29 from what to what?

$1.5 billion to $3 billion

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Economic] What did the State Department hire to do what?

Hired economists such as Edwin Kemmerer to develop plans for countries that requested US investment.

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Economic] What did the Kemmerer plans help to do?

stabilise and develop the economies of such countries by offering advice on sound currency and central banks

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Economic] What problems did American investment in Latin America bring?

USA was reluctant to sanction military intervention because it was expensive and unpopular with taxpayers

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Settling Disputes] How much did USA give colombia in compensation for its support for the independence of Panama in 1903

$25 million

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Settling Disputes] When were troops withdrawn from Nicaragua and why?

1925 - In order to improve relations between the two countries

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Settling Disputes] Why were troops sent back to Nicaragua a year after they were removed?

5000 sent back in due to the outbreak of civil war

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Settling Disputes] What did Mexico pay 2 years in a row as compensation for the Mexican Revolution?

$500,000

[American involvement in Latin America post WW1 - Political Intervention] What peace treaty is an example of political intervention of America in Latin America and what did it lead to?

Peace Treaty of Tipitapa - led to the election of Juan Bautista Sacasa in 1928

What were the American aims for the Far East following WW1?

• maintain status quo and naval power - stop further arms race

• improve and increase trade - open door

When was FDR president?

1933 - 1945

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] What was FDR’s ‘Good Neighbour Policy’?

Foreign policy adopted by FDR to mend and improve relations with Latin America

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] Why did FDR use his good neighbour policy?

• economic reasons

• moral diplomacy

• improve political relations

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] What happened to US troops under the policy?

left Haiti, the dominican republic, and nicaragua

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] What treaty did Congress sign with cuba under the policy?

it nullified the Platt Amendment which had authorised the US occupation of Cuba

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] By 1938 how many treaties had been made with Latin American countries under the policy?

10

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] As a result of the treaties made with Latin American countries under the policy, what happened to trade and which county did this effect primarily?

Trade increased for the US, improving diplomatic relations particularly with Cuba (due to sugar trade)

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] What were tariffs like under the policy?

very low, improving economies of Latin American countries, especially Cuba

[FDR’s Good Neighbour Policy] What agreement repealed several isolationist trade policies under the policy and why?

The Reciprocal Trade Agreement - meant the US could compete better in foreign trade

What did the Neutrality act of 1935 do?

• gave the pres the power to prohibit US ships from carrying US-made munitions to countries at war

• prevented US citizens from travelling on ships of those countries at war

What did the Neutrality act of 1936 do?

• banned loans or credits to countries at war

• set no limits on trade in materials useful for war and US companies such as Texaco were thus able to sell such items on credit to General Franco in the Spanish Civil war.

What did the first Neutrality act of 1937 do?

• forbade the export of munitions for use by either of the opposing forces in Spain

• permit nations involved in a war to buy goods other than munitions from the USA (provided they pay cash and used their own ships)

What did the second Neutrality act of 1937 do?

authorised the US pres to determine what could and could not be bought, other than munitions, to be paid for on delivery, and made travel on ships of countries at war unlawful

In 1937, a Gallup Poll indicated that almost what percentage of Americans thought that US involvement in WW1 had been a mistake?

70%

In 1937, a Gallup Poll indicated that almost what percentage of Americans opposed any future involvement in war?

95%

What did the 1939 Neutrality act state?

• the pres could authorise the ‘cash and carry’ export of arms and munitions to countries at war, but they had to be transported on their own ships

• specify which areas were theatres of war in time of war, through which US citizens and ships were forbidden to travel

• proclaimed the north Atlantic a combat zone

What agreement marked a turning point in American policy in regards to WW2?

Munich Agreement

[Response to Munich Agreement] When did Roosevelt open secret talks with the french and what did they discuss?

October 1938 - talks on how to bypass the neutrality laws and allow the french to buy US aircraft

[Response to Munich Agreement] What did the US do in March 1939 and why?

Recalled its ambassador after Germany broke the Munich Agreement and seized parts of Czechoslovakia

[Changing situation in Europe and the response of the USA] What does Roosevelt ask congress to do after G.B and France declare war on Germany and why?

repeal arms embargo to help defeat germany (in fear of Nazism). They were fearful that Germany would threaten US next.

[Changing situation in Europe and the response of the USA] How did congress respond to Roosevelt’s request to repeal the arms embargo?

Agreed to sell arms on a strictly cash and carry basis

[Changing situation in Europe and the response of the USA] How many aircraft and aeroengines did Britain place orders for but was increasingly unable to pay?

14,000 aircraft and 25,000 aeroengines

[Changing situation in Europe and the response of the USA] How many destroyers did Roosevelt trade with Britain for how many carribean bases?

50 destroyers for 6 bases

[Changing situation in Europe and the response of the USA] What bases were leased to US by Britain?

Bermuda and Newfoundland

[Changing situation in Europe and the response of the USA] What did the lease of bases to US from Britain mark?

A shift to active support

What was Lend-lease?

Britain was loaned the means to keep fighting by the US (extended to USSR in November 1941)

Why was the Atlantic Charter important?

• beginning of the ‘special relationship’ between the USA and Britain - a personal and political friendship between the leaders

• set out plans for a new world order based on democratic principles

• Recognised stalin as a partner and promised to continue sending supplies to the USSR

[The USA and Japan] What did Fascism have to do with USA going to war with Japan in 1941?

Japan was eding closer to fascist dictators in europe

[The USA and Japan] What did the power of the Japanese military have to do with USA going to war with Japan in 1941?

US alarmed by Japan’s military enroachments into Indochina which dictated foreign policy - aim was to destroy USA interference with imperial and economic expansion

[The USA and Japan] What did FDR’s lending to china have to do with USA going to war with Japan in 1941?

• Lent to china in retaliation

• lent to buy weapons

• asked US manufactures not to sell to Japan

[The USA and Japan] What did FDR’s restrictions on arms, oil, and iron to Japan have to do with USA going to war with Japan in 1941?

• July 1940

• After the signing of the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis

• Roosevelt banned the sale of machine tools to Japan

[The USA and Japan] What did European power’s inability to defend far eastern possessions have to do with USA going to war with Japan in 1941?

• Example of lack of defence: dutch east indies

• When france was defeated, Japanese marched into French colonies in Inodchina

[The USA and Japan] What did a freeze on Japanese have to do with USA going to war with Japan in 1941?

• July 1941

• Frozen assets in US and an emargo on oil (Japan was dependent on American oil

[The USA and Japan] What did the attack on pearl have to do with USA going to war with Japan in 1941?

• US had not responded to Japan’s offers

• Japan made preparations to attack and did not tell its allies

• Japan’s objective was the immobilise the US navy

When was pearl harbour?

December 1941