Craft and Structure

The following text is adapted from Nathaniel Hawthorneʼs 1837 story “Dr. Heideggerʼs Experiment.” The main character, a physician, is experimenting with rehydrating a dried flower.

At first [the rose] lay lightly on the surface of the fluid, appearing to imbibe none of its moisture. Soon, however, a singular change began to be visible. The crushed and dried petals stirred and assumed a deepening tinge of crimson, as if the flower were reviving from a deathlike slumber.

As used in the text, what does the phrase “a singular” most nearly mean?

A. A lonely

B. A disagreeable

C. An acceptable

D. An extraordinary

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because as used in the text, “singular” most nearly means extraordinary. The text portrays an experiment in which a character rehydrates a dried rose by infusing it with moisture. After prolonged contact with the liquid, the rose begins to absorb it, undergoing an exceptional transformation: its color deepens, its previously “crushed and dried” petals shift, and the entire flower revives “from a deathlike slumber.” In other words, an extraordinary change is visible in the flower.

Choice A is incorrect. Although in some contexts “singular” can mean of or relating to an individual or to a single instance of something, this usage doesn’t imply loneliness or an otherwise unsatisfactory condition of isolation. Moreover, the text doesn’t attribute such a condition to the rose. Choice B is incorrect. Although “singular” has several related meanings, none of them relate to being disagreeable or unpleasant. Moreover, the text doesn’t portray the change undergone by the rose as necessarily disagreeable. Choice C is incorrect because “singular” means extraordinary, not acceptable. The change is portrayed as striking, not barely satisfactory.

The work of molecular biophysicist Enrique M. De La Cruz is known for traditional boundaries between

academic disciplines. The university laboratory that De La Cruz runs includes engineers, biologists, chemists, and physicists, and the research the lab produces makes use of insights and techniques from all those fields.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. epitomizing

B. transcending

C. anticipating

D. reinforcing

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. Based on the text, we’re looking for a word that means something similar to "mak[ing] use of insights and techniques from all those fields." "Transcending" means "going beyond," so "transcending traditional boundaries" would mean crossing into all those various fields of research, which is exactly the meaning we want.

Choice A is incorrect. This isn’t a logical word choice. Based on the text, we’re looking for a word that means something similar to "mak[ing] use of insights and techniques from all those fields." To "epitomize" means to "be a perfect example of," so "epitomizing traditional boundaries" would mean the opposite of what we want: keeping the fields of research separate. Choice C is incorrect. This isn’t a logical word choice. Based on the text, we’re looking for a word that means something similar to "mak[ing] use of insights and techniques from all those fields." "Anticipating" means "expecting" or "waiting for," and would result in a confusing sentence with an unclear meaning. Choice D is incorrect. This isn’t a logical word choice. Based on the text, we’re looking for a word that means something similar to "mak[ing] use of insights and techniques from all those fields." "Reinforcing traditional boundaries" would mean the opposite: keeping the fields of research separate.

The following text is from F. Scott Fitzgeraldʼs 1925 novel The Great Gatsby. [Jay Gatsby] was balancing himself on the dashboard of his car with that resourcefulness of movement that is so peculiarly American—that comes, I suppose, with the absence of lifting work in youth and, even more, with the formless grace of our nervous, sporadic games. This quality was continually breaking through his punctilious manner in the shape of restlessness.

As used in the text, what does the word “quality” most nearly mean?

A. Standard

B. Prestige

C. Characteristic

D. Accomplishment

Correct Answer: C Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. “This quality” refers to Gatsby’s “resourcefulness of movement,” which is described as a characteristic or trait of his.

Choice A is incorrect. This isn’t what “quality” means in this context. Here, “this quality” refers to Gatsby’s “resourcefulness of movement,” which is described as a characteristic or trait of his. “Standard” is a synonym for a different definition of “quality”: the degree of excellence of something. Choice B is incorrect. This isn’t what “quality” means in this context. Here, “this quality” refers to Gatsby’s “resourcefulness of movement,” which is described as a characteristic or trait of his. “Prestige” would suggest a high status or an admirable reputation, which doesn’t match that description. Choice D is incorrect. This isn’t what “quality” means in this context. Here, “this quality” refers to Gatsby’s “resourcefulness of movement,” which is described as a characteristic or trait of his. “Accomplishment” would suggest an achievement, which doesn’t match that description.

To develop a method for measuring snow depth with laser beams, NASA physicist Yongxiang Hu relied on____; identifying broad similarities between two seemingly different phenomena, Hu used information about how ants move inside colonies to calculate how the particles of light that make up laser beams travel through snow.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. a collaboration

B. an accessory

C. a contradiction

D. an analogy

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text after the semicolon tells us that Hu "identif[ied] broad similarities between two seemingly different phenomena," comparing ants with light particles. Since an analogy seeks similarities between seemingly unrelated phenomena, this fits the context perfectly.

Choice A is incorrect. "A collaboration" refers to "an act of working with others," but what comes after the semicolon doesn’t describe collaboration with other researchers. Instead, it shows a comparison between two different (but ultimately similar) scientific phenomena. Choice B is incorrect. "An accessory" can refer to "something added to increase attractiveness or usefulness." No accessories are described in this text. Choice C is incorrect. "A contradiction" means "a set of ideas or things that are opposed to or inconsistent with each other." The text describes how Hu used the similarity between ant and light particle movement to develop his method, so a word that refers to difference would not make sense here.

A journalist and well-respected art critic of nineteenth-century Britain, Lady Elizabeth Rigby Eastlake did not hesitate to publish reviews that went against popular opinion. One of her most divisive works was an essay questioning the idea of photography as an emerging medium for fine art: in the essay, Eastlake ____ that the value of photographs was informational rather than creative.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. exposed

B. asserted

C. discovered

D. doubted

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. "Asserted" means "stated confidently." Eastlake "did not hesitate to publish reviews going against popular opinion," so we can assume that she was confident in sharing her opinions.

Choice A is incorrect. "Exposed" means "made visible by uncovering" and, when talking about ideas, tends to be used in relation to uncovering the truth. Eastlake was sharing an opinion, not uncovering a truth. Choice C is incorrect. "Discovered" means "found," but Eastlake was writing an opinion essay. She was writing her own opinion, not "discovering" a new universal truth. Choice D is incorrect. "Doubted" means "didn’t believe in." We’re told that Eastlake "questioned" the idea that photography could be fine art. Placing "doubted" in the blank would actually suggest that Eastlake argued that photos were valuable for creativity and not for information, which is the opposite of what we were told she believes.

Stephen Hannockʼs luminous landscape paintings are appealing to viewers but have elicited little commentary from contemporary critics, a phenomenon that may be due to the very fact that the paintings seem so___. Many critics focus their attention on art that is cryptic or overtly challenging.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. innovative

B. subversive

C. profound

D. accessible

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. When talking about a thing, “accessible” means “easy to understand.” This sets up the contrast in the next sentence, which tells us that critics mostly focus on art that is “cryptic or challenging” (meaning not easy to understand).

Choice A is incorrect. This doesn’t fit the logic of the text. The next sentence tells us that critics focus on art that is mysterious and challenging. If Hannock’s paintings are “innovative” (meaning advanced and original), then critics probably would comment on them. Choice B is incorrect. This doesn’t fit the logic of the text. The next sentence tells us that critics focus on art that is mysterious and challenging. If Hannock’s paintings are “subversive” (meaning disruptive and revolutionary), then critics probably would comment on them. Choice C is incorrect. This doesn’t fit the logic of the text. The next sentence tells us that critics focus on art that is mysterious and challenging. If Hannock’s paintings are “profound” (meaning very deep and insightful), then critics probably would comment on them.

In 2008 a complete set of ancient pessoi (glass game pieces) was uncovered from beneath a paving stone in modern- day Israel. Due to their small size, pessoi were easily misplaced, making a whole set a rare find. This has led some experts to suggest that the set may have been buried intentionally; however, without clear evidence, archaeologists are left to______ what happened.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. speculate about

B. dismiss

C. expand on

D. catalog

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. "Speculate" means "to form a theory or guess without any clear evidence." This makes sense because, due to the lack of "clear evidence," the archaeologists can only guess how the pessoi set might have come to be there.

Choice B is incorrect. "Dismiss" can mean "send away" or "treat as unworthy of consideration." The text implies that the archaeologists are trying to figure out the truth—they wouldn’t "dismiss" what really happened. Choice C is incorrect. "Expand on" means "give more details about," but there aren’t any details to give. Without any "clear evidence," the archaeologists can’t give any more details. Choice D is incorrect. "Catalog" means "carefully record" or "make a list of." However, there’s no "clear evidence," so there’s no real information to "catalog."

The following text is adapted from Zora Neale Hurstonʼs 1921 short story “John Redding Goes to Sea.” John wants to travel far beyond the village where he lives near his mother, Matty.

[John] had on several occasions attempted to reconcile his mother to the notion, but found it a difficult task. Matty always took refuge in self-pity and tears. Her sonʼs desires were incomprehensible to her, that was all.

As used in the text, what does the phrase “reconcile his mother to” most nearly mean?

A. Get his mother to accept

B. Get his mother to apologize for

C. Get his mother to match

D. Get his mother to reunite with

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The expression “reconcile to” means “to cause (a person) to accept something difficult or disagreeable.” The text suggests that John wants his mother to accept his desire to travel, even though she doesn’t like that idea.

Choice B is incorrect. This doesn’t make sense. John doesn’t want his mother to apologize for his own desire to travel—he wants her to accept his desire to travel. Choice C is incorrect. The text doesn’t suggest that John wants his mother to match his desire to travel. Rather, he wants her to accept his desire to travel even though she doesn’t like it. Choice D is incorrect. This is tempting, because it seems to pick up on the idea of people “reconciling” after a fight, but it actually doesn’t make sense. The text never suggests that John’s mother was “united with” the idea of him traveling in the past—if anything, it seems like she’s always been against it. Besides, it would be strange to say that a person “reunites with” a notion.

Business researcher Melanie Brucks and colleagues found that remote video conference meetings may be less conducive to brainstorming than in-person meetings are. The researchers suspect that video meeting participants are focused on staring at the speaker on the screen and donʼt allow their eyes or mind to wander as much, which may ultimately creativity.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. recommend

B. criticize

C. impede

D. construct

Correct Answer: C Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. The first sentence tells us that video meetings are “less conducive to” (meaning less good for) brainstorming. This suggests that the video meeting participants’ focus is bad for their creativity. “Impede” means “delay” or “prevent,” which works perfectly in this context.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice is too positive to fit the context. The first sentence tells us that video meetings are “less conducive to” (meaning less good for) brainstorming. This suggests that the video meeting participants’ focus is bad for their creativity. Choice B is incorrect. This choice doesn’t make sense. The participants’ intense focus on the screen is the subject of the missing verb. It wouldn’t make sense to say that their over-focusing “criticizes” their creativity. Choice D is incorrect. “Construct” means “build” or “make,” which is too positive to fit the context. The first sentence tells us that video meetings are “less conducive to” (meaning less good for) brainstorming. This suggests that the video meeting participants’ focus is bad for their creativity.

Mineralogical differences are detectable in samples collected from two locations on the near-Earth asteroid Ryugu, but such differences may not indicate substantial compositional variations in the asteroid. Cosmochemist Kazuhide Nagashima and colleagues note that at the small scale of the samples, the distribution of minerals is unlikely to be ______.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. neglected

B. redundant

C. ongoing

D. uniform

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text tells us that the samples are too "small scale" to reflect the composition of the asteroid, which probably doesn’t show the same variation on a large scale. This suggests that the mineral composition of the samples are unlikely to be exactly the same from sample to sample.

Choice A is incorrect. "Neglected" means "suffering a lack of proper care" or "abandoned," which doesn’t work here. The text never suggests that the distribution of minerals in the samples would be neglected, so this statement doesn’t logically follow. Choice B is incorrect. "Redundant" means "not or no longer useful or needed," which is too strong. The text doesn’t suggest that the variation between the samples isn’t a useful finding at all—just that we can’t assume that the large-scale composition of the asteroid will show the same variation. But the composition of the samples might be useful for something else. Choice C is incorrect. "Ongoing" means "still in progress," which doesn’t make sense: the distribution of minerals in a sample can’t be "ongoing."

Archeological excavation of Market Street Chinatown, a nineteenth-century Chinese American community in San Jose, California, provided the first evidence that Asian food products were imported to the United States in the 1800s: bones from a freshwater fish species native to Southeast Asia. Jinshanzhuang—Hong Kong–based import/export firms—likely coordinated the fishʼs transport from Chinese-operated fisheries in Vietnam and Malaysia to North American markets. This route reveals the (often overlooked) multinational dimensions of the trade networks linking Chinese diaspora communities.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It explains why efforts to determine the country of origin of the items mentioned in the previous sentence remain inconclusive.

B. It provides information that helps support a claim about a discoveryʼs significance that is presented in the following sentence.

C. It traces the steps that were taken to locate and recover the objects that are described in the previous sentence.

D. It outlines a hypothesis that additional evidence discussed in the following sentence casts some doubt on.

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The underlined sentence provides information about import/export firms, showing how Chinese communities across the world were connected by trade routes.

Choice A is incorrect. The underlined sentence never suggests that the countries of origin of the fish are in question—in fact, it tells us exactly where they came from. Choice C is incorrect. The passage never describes the steps taken to discover the fish bones described in the previous sentence. Choice D is incorrect. The underlined sentence doesn’t outline a hypothesis but instead provides evidence. And the following sentence agrees with the underlined sentence, so we could eliminate this choice just for saying that the following sentence "casts some doubt on" the underlined one—partly wrong is all wrong.

Using NASAʼs powerful James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), Mercedes López-Morales and colleagues measured the wavelengths of light traveling through the atmosphere of WASP-39b, an exoplanet, or planet outside our solar system. Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of light, and the wavelength measurements showed the presence of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in WASP-39bʼs atmosphere. This finding not only offers the first decisive evidence of CO₂ in the atmosphere of an exoplanet but also illustrates the potential for future scientific breakthroughs held by the JWST.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It discusses a method used by some researchers, then states why an alternative method is superior to it.

B. It describes how researchers made a scientific discovery, then explains the importance of that discovery.

C. It outlines the steps taken in a scientific study, then presents a hypothesis based on that study.

D. It examines how a group of scientists reached a conclusion, then shows how other scientists have challenged that conclusion.

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The text begins by describing how the researchers used the JWST to detect CO₂ in WASP-39b’s atmosphere. Then the text discusses the significance of this finding, both as the first evidence of CO₂ in an exoplanet’s atmosphere and as an illustration of the JWST’s potential for making new discoveries in general.

Choice A is incorrect. The text doesn’t compare two different methods, but rather focuses on one study that used the JWST. Choice C is incorrect. The text doesn’t present a hypothesis, but rather reports on the findings of a study. Choice D is incorrect. The text doesn’t mention any scientists challenging the conclusion reached by López-Morales and colleagues.

Yawn contagion occurs when one individual yawns in response to anotherʼs yawn. Studies of this behavior in primates have focused on populations in captivity, but biologist Elisabetta Palagi and her colleagues have shown that it can occur in wild primate populations as well. In their study, which focused on a wild population of gelada monkeys (Theropithecus gelada) in Ethiopia, the researchers further reported that yawn contagion most commonly occurred in males and across different social groups instead of within a single social group.

Which choice best describes the function of the first sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It defines a phenomenon that is discussed in the text.

B. It introduces a problem that is examined in the text.

C. It makes a claim that is challenged in the text.

D. It presents a hypothesis that is evaluated in the text.

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the first sentence functions in the text as a whole. The first sentence introduces what yawn contagion is, explaining that it occurs when an individual yawns in response to the yawn of another individual. The text goes on to describe Elisabetta Palagi and her colleagues’ study of this phenomenon in a wild population of gelada monkeys. According to the text, the study showed that wild primate populations experience yawn contagion and that the behavior occurs most commonly in male monkeys and across social groups. Thus, the function of the first sentence is to define the phenomenon of yawn contagion that is discussed in the text.

Choice B is incorrect. Although the first sentence introduces the text’s discussion of yawn contagion, it doesn’t present this behavior, or anything else, as a problem. Choice C is incorrect because the first sentence doesn’t present a claim but instead explains what yawn contagion is. Moreover, the text doesn’t challenge anything; it’s an informative text that describes the findings of a research study about yawning in wild primate populations. Choice D is incorrect. Although the text describes a scientific study, and most scientific studies are guided by a hypothesis, the text doesn’t say what Palagi and her colleagues’ hypothesis was; the text discusses their findings instead.

The following text is from Joseph Conradʼs 1907 novel The Secret Agent: A Simple Tale. Mr. Verloc is navigating the London streets on his way to a meeting.

Before reaching Knightsbridge, Mr. Verloc took a turn to the left out of the busy main thoroughfare, uproarious with the traffic of swaying omnibuses and trotting vans, in the almost silent, swift flow of hansoms [horse-drawn carriages]. Under his hat, worn with a slight backward tilt, his hair had been carefully brushed into respectful sleekness; for his business was with an Embassy. And Mr. Verloc, steady like a rock—a soft kind of rock—marched now along a street which could with every propriety be described as private.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined phrase in the text as a whole?

A. It qualifies an earlier description of Mr. Verloc.

B. It emphasizes an internal struggle Mr. Verloc experiences.

C. It contrasts Mr. Verloc with his surroundings.

D. It reveals a private opinion Mr. Verloc holds.

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The underline phrase qualifies (meaning adds limits or conditions to) the description of Mr. Verloc as “steady like a rock,” adding that he is a “soft” rock.

Choice B is incorrect. In fact, the passage never mentions Mr. Verloc experiencing any internal struggles.

Choice C is incorrect. The underlined phrase doesn’t contrast Mr. Verloc with his surroundings, but is instead modifying the description of him as a rock. Choice D is incorrect. The underlined phrase doesn’t reveal a private opinion Mr. Verloc holds: instead, it further describes his character for the reader.

In 1973, poet Miguel Algarín started inviting other writers who, like him, were Nuyorican—a term for New Yorkers of Puerto Rican heritage—to gather in his apartment to present their work. The gatherings were so well attended that Algarín soon had to rent space in a cafe to accommodate them. Thus, the Nuyorican Poets Cafe was born. Moving to a permanent location in 1981, the Nuyorican Poets Cafe expanded its original scope beyond the written word, hosting art exhibitions and musical performances as well. Half a century since its inception, it continues to foster emerging Nuyorican talent.

Which choice best describes the overall purpose of the text?

A. To explain what motivated Algarín to found the Nuyorican Poets Cafe

B. To situate the Nuyorican Poets Cafe within the cultural life of New York as a whole

C. To discuss why the Nuyorican Poets Cafe expanded its scope to include art and music

D. To provide an overview of the founding and mission of the Nuyorican Poets Cafe

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text presents a brief history of the Nuyorican Poets Cafe, from how it got started in the ’70s, to its expansion in the ’80s, to its ongoing mission today.

Choice A is incorrect. This isn’t the overall purpose. The text never mentions Algarín’s motivations. Choice B is incorrect. This isn’t the overall purpose. The text never discusses the cultural life of New York as a whole.

Choice C is incorrect. This is too narrow. One sentence mentions that the Nuyorican Poets Cafe expanded its scope to include art and music, but this is only one point in the broader history of the Nuyorican Poets Cafe, which is the overall focus of the text.

The following text is adapted from Charles Dickensʼs 1854 novel Hard Times. Coketown is a fictional town in England. [Coketown] contained several large streets all very like one another, and many small streets still more like one another, inhabited by people equally like one another, who all went in and out at the same hours, with the same sound upon the same pavements, to do the same work, and to whom every day was the same as yesterday and tomorrow, and every year the counterpart of the last and the next.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To emphasize the uniformity of both the town and the people who live there

B. To explain the limited work opportunities available to the townʼs residents

C. To reveal how the predictability of the town makes it easy for people lose track of time

D. To argue that the simplicity of life in the town makes it a pleasant place to live

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The author describes Coketown as having streets that are all very similar and residents who live similarly and do the same work. This repetition of similarities emphasizes how everything in Coketown is alike.

 Choice B is incorrect. While the text mentions that all the residents “do the same work,” it never explains what that work is or why everyone does it. Besides, the idea that they all do the same work is just one of several similarities among the townspeople described in the text. Choice C is incorrect. While the last sentence states that “every day was the same as yesterday and tomorrow, and every year the counterpart of the last and the next,” it never suggests that people actually “lose track of time.” This is also too narrow to be the main idea, since time is just one of many aspects of Coketown that the text describes as always being the same. Choice D is incorrect. The text never mentions whether life is simple in Coketown, and the town sounds as though it’s probably a pretty dull place to live, rather than a pleasant one.

The following text is adapted from Paul Laurence Dunbarʼs 1902 novel The Sport of the Gods. Joe and some of his family members have recently moved to New York City.

[Joe] was wild with enthusiasm and with a desire to be a part of all that the metropolis meant. In the evening he saw the young fellows passing by dressed in their spruce clothes, and he wondered with a sort of envy where they could be going. Back home there had been no place much worth going to, except church and one or two peopleʼs houses.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. It illustrates a characterʼs reaction to a new environment.

B. It explains why a character has traveled to a city.

C. It compares a characterʼs thoughts about an event at two different times of day.

D. It presents a character feeling regret over leaving home.

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes the main purpose of the text. The narrator describes how Joe responds to being in “the metropolis”: he’s excited and “wild with enthusiasm.” He also envies the young fellows who walk by because, dressed as they are, they look as if they have somewhere special to go. The text contrasts this new place with the place Joe comes from, where apparently there wasn’t as much to do. Thus, the main purpose of the text is to illustrate Joe’s reaction to a new environment.

Choice B is incorrect because the text makes no reference to why Joe has moved. The narrator indicates that Joe is enthusiastic about being in a city, but there’s no explanation provided for the move. Choice C is incorrect because the text makes no reference to how Joe thinks about an event. The narrator describes young men passing by in the evening and then recalls places worth going to at home—church and a few people’s houses—but there’s no explicit comparison made nor is a time of day mentioned for these events back home. Choice D is incorrect because the text doesn’t support the idea that Joe feels regret over leaving home. Instead, Joe is described as “wild with enthusiasm” at being in the city. Joe’s home is mentioned, but only to compare it unfavorably with the city.

The following text is from Charlotte Perkins Gilmanʼs 1910 poem “The Earthʼs Entail.”

No matter how we cultivate the land,

Taming the forest and the prairie free; No matter how we irrigate the sand, Making the desert blossom at command,

We must always leave the borders of the sea; The immeasureable reaches

Of the windy wave-wet beaches,

The million-mile-long margin of the sea.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. The speaker argues against interfering with nature and then gives evidence supporting this interference.

B. The speaker presents an account of efforts to dominate nature and then cautions that such efforts are only temporary.

C. The speaker provides examples of an admirable way of approaching nature and then challenges that approach.

D. The speaker describes attempts to control nature and then offers a reminder that not all nature is controllable.

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. This best describes the overall structure of the text. In the first half of the text, the speaker describes our attempts to control nature: cultivating, taming, and irrigating different kinds of land. In the second half, the speaker states that we can never tame the sea or the beach.

 Choice A is incorrect. This doesn’t describe the overall structure of the text. The speaker never argues that we should not interfere with nature. Rather, the speaker says that we are able to tame many different kinds of land, but we are unable to tame the sea or beaches. Choice B is incorrect. This doesn’t describe the overall structure of the text. The speaker never describes our cultivation, taming, and irrigation of land as “temporary.” Rather, the speaker says that we are able to tame many different kinds of land, but we are unable to tame the sea or beaches. Choice C is incorrect. This doesn’t describe the overall structure of the text. The speaker never describes our cultivation, taming, and irrigation of land as an “admirable” approach to nature.” Rather, the speaker says that we are able to tame many different kinds of land, but we are unable to tame the sea or beaches.

The following text is adapted from Etsu Inagaki Sugimotoʼs 1925 memoir A Daughter of the Samurai. As a young woman, Sugimoto moved from feudal Japan to the United States.

The standards of my own and my adopted country differed so widely in some ways, and my love for both lands was so sincere, that sometimes I had an odd feeling of standing upon a cloud in space, and gazing with measuring eyes upon two separate worlds. At first I was continually trying to explain, by Japanese standards, all the queer things that came every day before my surprised eyes; for no one seemed to know the origin or significance of even the most familiar customs, nor why they existed and were followed.

Which choice best describes the main purpose of the text?

A. To convey the narratorʼs experience of observing and making sense of differences between two cultures she embraces

B. To establish the narratorʼs hope of forming connections with new companions by sharing customs she learned as a child

C. To reveal the narratorʼs recognition that she is hesitant to ask questions about certain aspects of a culture she is newly encountering

D. To emphasize the narratorʼs wonder at discovering that the physical distance between two countries is greater than she had expected

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer because it most accurately describes the main purpose of the text. The narrator asserts that she loves both her “own” country (Japan) and her “adopted country” (the United States) even though the two countries differ “widely.” She also indicates that, at first, she would try to explain unfamiliar experiences that she had in the United States using the standards ingrained in her from growing up in Japan. Thus, the main purpose of the text is to convey the narrator’s experience of observing and making sense of the differences between two cultures she embraces.

 Choice B is incorrect because the text makes no reference to possible companions. Although the text does indicate that the narrator sometimes used the cultural framework she acquired growing up in Japan to explain some experiences she’s had, there is no suggestion that this was in service of making friends. And although “no one seemed to know” strongly implies that the narrator has interacted with other people in the United States, there is no indication that these conversations involved her discussing Japanese customs. Choice C is incorrect because nothing in the text suggests that the narrator was hesitant to ask questions. In fact, the narrator indicates that “no one seemed to know the origin” of various customs, which provides evidence that, rather than being hesitant, she sought information from several people. Choice D is incorrect because the text makes no reference to the physical distance between Japan and the United States. Although the narrator indicates that the two countries differ “widely” and likens them to “two separate worlds,” these descriptions relate to cultural aspects of the countries and the narrator’s feelings about the two countries, not the physical distance between them.

In the Here and Now Storybook (1921), educator Lucy Sprague Mitchell advanced the then controversial idea that books for very young children should imitate how they use language, since toddlers, who cannot yet grasp narrative or abstract ideas, seek reassurance in verbal repetition and naming. The most enduring example of this idea is Margaret Wise Brownʼs 1947 picture book Goodnight Moon, in which a young rabbit names the objects in his room as he drifts off to sleep. Scholars note that the bookʼs emphasis on repetition, rhythm, and nonsense rhyme speaks directly to Mitchellʼs influence.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. The text outlines a debate between two authors of childrenʼs literature and then traces how that debate shaped theories on early childhood education.

B. The text summarizes an argument about how childrenʼs literature should be evaluated and then discusses a contrasting view on that subject.

C. The text lists the literary characteristics that are common to many classics of childrenʼs literature and then indicates the narrative subjects that are most appropriate for young children.

D. The text presents a philosophy about what material is most suitable for childrenʼs literature and then describes a book influenced by that philosophy.

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text starts by introducing Mitchell’s philosophy about using simple, repetitive language in books for young children. Then it describes a book influenced by that philosophy, Goodnight Moon.

Choice A is incorrect. Although two authors are mentioned in the text, they both agree about the type of language that should be contained in books for young children. Choice B is incorrect. The text never discusses the evaluation of children’s literature. It does provide one view of how children’s books should be written, but never introduces a competing view. Choice C is incorrect. The text doesn’t mention “many classics of children’s literature.” Instead, it describes an educational theory and identifies one example of a famous children’s book that was influenced by that theory.

Works of moral philosophy, such as Platoʼs Republic or Aristotleʼs Nicomachean Ethics, are partly concerned with how to live a morally good life. But philosopher Jonathan Barnes argues that works that present a method of living such a life without also supplying a motive are inherently useful only to those already wishing to be morally good—those with no desire for moral goodness will not choose to follow their rules. However, some works of moral philosophy attempt to describe what constitutes a morally good life while also proposing reasons for living one.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It provides a characterization about a field of thought by noting two works in it and then details a way in which some works in that field are more comprehensive than others.

B. It mentions two renowned works and then claims that despite their popularity it is impossible for these works to serve the purpose their authors intended.

C. It summarizes the history of a field of thought by discussing two works and then proposes a topic of further research for specialists in that field.

D. It describes two influential works and then explains why one is more widely read than the other.

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The text starts by stating what moral philosophy is concerned with and naming two examples of works in the field. Then it describes a shortcoming of some works in that field (they say how but not why), and finally it states that other works try to avoid that shortcoming (by including both how and why to live a morally good life).

 Choice B is incorrect. This is too extreme. The text never mentions whether the two works are popular or not, and it never argues that these works don’t serve their intended purpose of describing how to live a morally good life.

Rather, the text claims that works of moral philosophy that don’t include both how and why to be moral are not useful to readers who don’t already want to be moral. Choice C is incorrect. This isn’t the overall structure. The text never discusses the history of moral philosophy at all, and it doesn’t propose any topic for further research. Choice D is incorrect. This isn’t the overall structure. The text never discusses which of the two works is more widely read.

Industrial activity is often assumed to be a threat to wildlife, but that isnʼt always so. Consider the silver-studded blue butterfly (Plebejus argus): as forest growth has reduced grasslands in northern Germany, many of these butterflies have left meadow habitats and are now thriving in active limestone quarries. In a survey of multiple active quarries and patches of maintained grassland, an ecologist found silver-studded blue butterflies in 100% of the quarries but only 57% of the grassland patches. Moreover, butterfly populations in the quarries were four times larger than those in the meadows.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It challenges a common assumption about the species under investigation in the research referred to in the text.

B. It introduces discussion of a specific example that supports the general claim made in the previous sentence.

C. It suggests that a certain species should be included in additional studies like the one mentioned later in the text.

D. It provides a definition for an unfamiliar term that is central to the main argument in the text.

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the underlined portion functions in the text as a whole. The first sentence presents the general claim that industrial activity is not always a threat to wildlife. The underlined portion of the sentence that follows suggests that the silver-studded blue butterfly is an example of wildlife thriving in areas of industrial activity: active limestone quarries. Thus, the function of the underlined portion is to introduce a specific example in support of the general claim in the previous sentence.

Choice A is incorrect. Although the first sentence indicates that “industrial activity is often assumed” to harm wildlife, in the case of the silver-studded blue butterfly the text mentions neither an assumption about this species nor any challenge to such an assumption. Choice C is incorrect because the text mentions only one study: the “survey.” Additional studies are not mentioned in the text. Choice D is incorrect because neither the underlined portion nor any other portion of the text provides a definition for any of the terms used in the text’s argument.

The following text is from Herman Melvilleʼs 1854 novel The Lightning-rod Man.

The stranger still stood in the exact middle of the cottage, where he had first planted himself. His singularity impelled a closer scrutiny. A lean, gloomy figure. Hair dark and lank, mattedly streaked over his brow. His sunken pitfalls of eyes were ringed by indigo halos, and played with an innocuous sort of lightning: the gleam without the bolt. The whole man was dripping. He stood in a puddle on the bare oak floor: his strange walking-stick vertically resting at his side.

Which choice best states the function of the underlined sentence in the overall structure of the text?

A. It elaborates on the previous sentenceʼs description of the character.

B. It introduces the setting that is described in the sentences that follow.

C. It establishes a contrast with the description in the previous sentence.

D. It sets up the character description presented in the sentences that follow.

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. This best states the function of the underlined sentence. The sentence basically says: “He stood out, so I looked more closely at him.” Then the rest of the text describes him in detail.

Choice A is incorrect. This doesn’t state the function of the underlined sentence. The previous sentence basically says: “He was still standing in the middle of the cottage”—it doesn’t include any description of the character himself. Choice B is incorrect. This doesn’t state the function of the underlined sentence. The following sentences describe the character, not the setting. Choice C is incorrect. This doesn’t state the function of the underlined sentence. The underlined sentence basically says: “He stood out, so I looked more closely at him.” The previous sentence basically says: “He was still standing in the middle of the cottage.” There’s no contrast between these two sentences.

Horizontal gene transfer occurs when an organism of one species acquires genetic material from an organism of another species through nonreproductive means. The genetic material can then be transferred “vertically” in the second species—that is, through reproductive inheritance. Scientist Atma Ivancevic and her team have hypothesized infection by invertebrate parasites as a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer between vertebrate species: while feeding, a parasite could acquire a gene from one host, then relocate to a host from a different vertebrate species and transfer the gene to it in turn.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It explains why parasites are less susceptible to horizontal gene transfer than their hosts are.

B. It clarifies why some genes are more likely to be transferred horizontally than others are.

C. It contrasts how horizontal gene transfer occurs among vertebrates with how it occurs among invertebrates.

D. It describes a means by which horizontal gene transfer might occur among vertebrates.

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. The text defines horizontal gene transfer and then gives one possibility for how it happens in vertebrates (via infection by parasites). The underlined part describes how that mechanism could work.

Choice A is incorrect. The underlined portion doesn’t do this. Parasites are only described as the mechanism that does the transferring, not the species that gives or receives the genes. Choice B is incorrect. The underlined portion doesn’t do this. The text never discusses which genes are more likely to be transferred. Choice C is incorrect. The underlined portion doesn’t do this. The text never discusses how horizontal gene transfer occurs among invertebrates.

Part of the Atacama Desert in Peru has surprisingly rich plant life despite receiving almost no rainfall. Moisture from winter fog sustains plants once theyʼre growing, but the soilʼs tough crust makes it hard for seeds to germinate in the first place. Local birds that dig nests in the ground seem to be of help: they churn the soil, exposing buried seeds to moisture and nutrients. Indeed, in 2016 Cristina Rengifo Faiffer found that mounds of soil dug up by birds were far more fertile and supported more seedlings than soil in undisturbed areas.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It elaborates on the idea that the top layer of Atacama Desert soil forms a tough crust.

B. It describes the process by which seeds are deposited into Atacama Desert soil.

C. It identifies the reason particular bird species dig nests in Atacama Desert soil.

D. It explains how certain birds promote seed germination in Atacama Desert soil.

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the underlined portion functions in the text as a whole. The first two sentences establish a natural phenomenon: there is a richness of plant life found in the Atacama Desert despite the hard soil that makes it challenging for seeds to germinate. The next sentence, which contains the underlined portion, offers a potential explanation for the phenomenon: local birds dig ground nests exposing seeds to moisture and materials in the soil necessary for germination. The last sentence summarizes a study that compared the fertileness of mounds of dirt dug up by birds to mounds that were undisturbed to support the explanation in the underlined portion. Thus, the underlined portion mainly functions to explain how certain birds promote seed germination in the Atacama Desert soil.

Choice A is incorrect because the underlined portion doesn’t address the topic of the soil’s tough crust or its formation. Instead, the text elaborates on the idea that local birds that build ground nests may help seeds germinate in the hard soil. Choice B is incorrect because the underlined portion describes how some birds may support seed germination in Atacama Desert soil but doesn’t describe how the seeds are deposited into the soil before germination begins. Choice C is incorrect because neither the underlined portion nor the text as a whole identifies a reason that a particular bird species may choose to dig ground nests in the Atacama Desert soil.

Michelene Pesantubbee, a historian and citizen of the Choctaw Nation, has identified a dilemma inherent to research on the status of women in her tribe during the 1600s and 1700s: the primary sources from that era, travel narratives and other accounts by male European colonizers, underestimate the degree of power conferred on Choctaw women by their traditional roles in political, civic, and ceremonial life. Pesantubbee argues that the Choctaw oral tradition and findings from archaeological sites in the tribeʼs homeland supplement the written record by providing crucial insights into those roles.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It details the shortcomings of certain historical sources, then argues that research should avoid those sources altogether.

B. It describes a problem that arises in research on a particular topic, then sketches a historianʼs approach to addressing that problem.

C. It lists the advantages of a particular research method, then acknowledges a historianʼs criticism of that method.

D. It characterizes a particular topic as especially challenging to research, then suggests a related topic for historians to pursue instead.

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The text begins by stating a problem with research on the status of Choctaw women in the 1600s and 1700s: written primary sources underestimate the power they had in their traditional roles. Then it presents one historian’s solution: looking to oral tradition and archeological findings for more insight into these roles.

Choice A is incorrect. This isn’t the overall structure. The text never says that research should avoid written primary sources, just that research should also use oral tradition and archeological sites as sources. Choice C is incorrect.

This isn’t the overall structure. The text never mentions the advantages of using written primary sources. Choice D is incorrect. This isn’t the overall structure. The text never says that the status of Choctaw women during the 1600s and 1700s is too challenging to research. And it doesn’t mention any other topics to research instead.

Many archaeologists assume that large-scale engineering projects in ancient societies required an elite class to plan and direct the necessary labor. However, recent discoveries, such as the excavation of an ancient canal near the Gulf Coast of Alabama, have complicated this picture. Using radiocarbon dating, a team of researchers concluded that the 1.39-kilometer-long canal was most likely constructed between 576 and 650 CE by an Indigenous society that was relatively free of social classes.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It describes a common view among archaeologists, then discusses a recent finding that challenges that view.

B. It outlines a method used in some archaeological fieldwork, then explains why an alternative method is superior to it.

C. It presents contradictory conclusions drawn by archaeologists, then evaluates a study that has apparently resolved that contradiction.

D. It identifies a gap in scientific research, then presents a strategy used by some archaeologists to remedy that gap.

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The text starts by introducing a common view among archaeologists about the need for an elite class to direct large-scale engineering projects. Then, it discusses the discovery of a large canal most likely built by a society without an elite class, which challenges the first view.

Choice B is incorrect. Although the text discusses carbon dating as an archaeological method, it doesn’t compare it to any other alternative methods. Choice C is incorrect. The study doesn’t resolve any contradictions—rather, it introduces a contradiction to the one view presented at the beginning of the text. Choice D is incorrect. The text never identifies any gaps in scientific research.

Text 1

Microbes are tiny organisms in the soil, water, and air all around us. They thrive even in very harsh conditions. Thatʼs why Noah Fierer and colleagues were surprised when soil samples they collected from an extremely cold, dry area in Antarctica didnʼt seem to contain any life. The finding doesnʼt prove that there are no microbes in that area, but the team says it does suggest that the environment severely restricts microbesʼ survival.

Text 2

Microbes are found in virtually every environment on Earth. So itʼs unlikely they would be completely absent from Fiererʼs teamʼs study site, no matter how extreme the environment is. There were probably so few organisms in the samples that current technology couldnʼt detect them. But since a spoonful of typical soil elsewhere might contain billions of microbes, the presence of so few in the Antarctic soil samples would show how challenging the conditions are.

Based on the texts, Fiererʼs team and the author of Text 2 would most likely agree with which statement about microbes?

A. Most microbes are better able to survive in environments with extremely dry conditions than in environments with harsh temperatures.

B. A much higher number of microbes would probably be found if another sample of soil were taken from the Antarctic study site.

C. Microbes are likely difficult to detect in the soil at the Antarctic study site because they tend to be smaller than microbes found in typical soil elsewhere.

D. Most microbes are probably unable to withstand the soil conditions at the Antarctic study site.

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer because it presents a statement about microbes with which Fierer’s team (Text 1) and the author of Text 2 would most likely agree. Text 1 states that microbes usually thrive in very harsh conditions, and so Fierer’s team was surprised when samples collected from an extremely cold and dry area of Antarctica didn’t appear to contain any life. Fierer’s team says that though this doesn’t conclusively prove there are no microbes in the area, it suggests that microbes would have a notably difficult time surviving in the environment. The author of Text 2 says it’s unlikely that there would be no microbes at all in the Antarctic study site from which Fierer’s team retrieved soil samples and that there may have been hard-to-detect microbes in the samples. However, the presence of only a few microbes in the Antarctic samples rather than the billions found in a typical soil sample (which would presumably be much easier to detect) would illustrate conditions in the Antarctic soil that make it difficult for microbes to thrive. Since Fierer’s team says that the seeming absence of microbes in the Antarctic samples suggests an unusually harsh environment and the author of Text 2 says that even if there are a few undetectable microbes in the samples, the relatively tiny number of microbes would also suggest an unusually harsh environment, then Fierer’s team and the author of Text 2 would most likely agree that most microbes are unable to withstand the soil conditions at the Antarctic study site.

Choice A is incorrect. The samples taken by Fierer’s team were from an area of Antarctica that is described in part as extremely dry, and these samples didn’t appear to have any life. Therefore, even though these samples also came from an extremely cold area, Fierer’s team wouldn’t argue based on the evidence available that microbes were better able to survive in dry conditions than in areas with harsh temperatures. Moreover, the author of Text 2 says that microbes are found in virtually every environment on Earth but doesn’t compare dry environments and harsh environments. Choice B is incorrect. Nothing in Text 1 indicates that another collection of samples from the Antarctic study site might yield different results from the samples already taken by Fierer’s team. The author of Text 2 does state that microbes are found in virtually every environment on Earth and suggests that new technology may be better able to detect so few microbes in a soil sample, but the author of Text 2 concludes that the unusual absence of microbes in the Antarctic samples is evidence of the harsh Antarctic environment. Therefore, there is no reason to believe that the author of Text 2 thinks that another sample drawn from that same harsh environment would yield a much higher number of microbes.

Choice C is incorrect. The author of Text 2 does speculate that there may have been so few microbes in the Antarctic samples that current technology couldn’t detect them, but the author doesn’t speculate that this is due to the size of the microbes. Moreover, nothing that Fierer’s team says suggests that they are speculating that their samples might have microbes that are smaller than microbes in typical soil samples.

Text 1

The idea that time moves in only one direction is instinctively understood, yet it puzzles physicists. According to the second law of thermodynamics, at a macroscopic level some processes of heat transfer are irreversible due to the production of entropy—after a transfer we cannot rewind time and place molecules back exactly where they were before, just as we cannot unbreak dropped eggs. But laws of physics at a microscopic or quantum level hold that those processes should be reversible.

Text 2

In 2015, physicists Tiago Batalhão et al. performed an experiment in which they confirmed the irreversibility of thermodynamic processes at a quantum level, producing entropy by applying a rapidly oscillating magnetic field to a system of carbon-13 atoms in liquid chloroform. But the experiment “does not pinpoint ... what causes [irreversibility] at the microscopic level,” coauthor Mauro Paternostro said.

Based on the texts, what would the author of Text 1 most likely say about the experiment described in Text 2?

A. It would suggest an interesting direction for future research were it not the case that two of the physicists who conducted the experiment disagree on the significance of its findings.

B. It provides empirical evidence that the current understanding of an aspect of physics at a microscopic level must be incomplete.

C. It is consistent with the current understanding of physics at a microscopic level but not at a macroscopic level.

D. It supports a claim about an isolated system of atoms in a laboratory, but that claim should not be extrapolated to a general claim about the universe.

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. Author 1 describes the puzzle that physicists still can’t solve: at a microscopic level, the “laws of physics” suggest that we should be able to reverse processes that are not reversible at a macroscopic level (and, maybe, turn back time!). The experiment confirmed that those processes are not reversible even on the microscopic level, but it didn’t explain why. This supports Author 1’s point that physicists still don’t fully understand how things work at a microscopic level—maybe the laws need to be revised.

Choice A is incorrect. We can’t infer that the author of Text 1 would respond this way to the experiment. Text 2 does name two of the physicists involved in the experiment, but it never suggests that they disagree on anything. Choice C is incorrect. This is the opposite of what the experiment suggests. The experiment confirmed that the macroscopic-level law (“these things can’t be reversed—like time”) was still true on the microscopic level—meaning it supports the current understanding of physics at a macroscopic level. Choice D is incorrect. We can’t infer that the author of Text 1 would respond this way to the experiment. Neither text makes this distinction between laboratory findings and the way the universe works in general.

Text 1

The live music festival business is growing in event size and genre variety. With so many consumer options, organizers are finding ways to cement festival attendance as a special experience worth sharing. This phenomenon is linked to the growing “experiential economy,” where many find it gratifying to purchase lived experiences. To ensure a profitable event, venues need to consider the overall consumer experience, not just the band lineup.

Text 2

Music festival appearances are becoming a more important part of musiciansʼ careers. One factor in this shift is the rising use of streaming services that allow access to huge numbers of songs for a monthly fee, subsequently reducing sales of full-length albums. With this shift in consumer behavior, musicians are increasingly dependent on revenue from live performances.

Based on the texts, both authors would most likely agree with which statement?

A. Consumers are more interested in paying subscription fees to stream music than in attending music festivals in person.

B. Consumersʼ growing interest in purchasing experiences is mostly confined to the music industry.

C. Changing consumer behaviors are leading to changes in music-related businesses.

D. The rising consumer demand for live music festivals also generates higher demand for music streaming platforms.

Correct Answer: C Rationale

Choice C is the best answer. Both authors mention how consumer behaviors have shifted, and how this affects different aspects of the music industry. Text 1 states that consumers enjoy purchasing “lived experiences,” and that this influences how organizers design music festivals. Text 2 states that consumers are using streaming services more, and that this reduces album sales and increases the importance of live performances for musicians.

Choice A is incorrect. Neither text claims that consumers prefer streaming to festivals, or that these are mutually exclusive options. Text 1 implies that festivals are popular and profitable, and Text 2 never suggests that streaming services diminish the demand for live music. Choice B is incorrect. This choice misreads Text 1, which identifies music festivals as just one example of a broader trend of purchasing “lived experiences.” Text 2 doesn’t mention growing interest in purchasing experiences, in the music industry or otherwise. Choice D is incorrect. Neither text establishes a cause/effect relationship between the demand for festivals and the demand for streaming platforms. Text 1 does not mention streaming platforms at all, and Text 2 does not imply that streaming platforms benefit from the popularity of festivals.

Text 1

Stage lighting theorist Adolphe Appia was perhaps the first to argue that light must be considered alongside all the various elements of a stage to create a single, unified performance. Researcher Kelly Bremner, however, has noted that Appia lacked technical expertise in the use of light in the theater. As a result of Appiaʼs inexperience, Bremner argues, Appiaʼs theory of light called for lighting practices that werenʼt possible until after the advent of electricity around 1881.

Text 2

Adolphe Appia was not an amateur in the practice of lighting. Instead, it is precisely his exposure to lighting techniques at the time that contributed to his theory on the importance of light. When working as an apprentice for a lighting specialist in his youth, Appia observed the use of portable lighting devices that could be operated by hand. This experience developed his understanding of what was possible in the coordination of elements on the stage.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the claim about Appiaʼs level of technical expertise made by Bremner in Text 1?

A. Many lighting technicians dismissed Appiaʼs ideas about light on the stage.

B. Appia likely gained a level of technical expertise during his time as an apprentice.

C. Theater practitioners who worked with Appia greatly admired his work.

D. Appia was unfamiliar with the use of music and sound in theater.

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. The author of Text 2 directly contradicts Bremner’s claim that Appia lacked technical expertise by stating that Appia was “not an amateur in the practice of lighting.” His experience as a lighting specialist’s apprentice would have, the author of Text 2 argues, allowed Appia to “[develop] his understanding of what was possible” with the elements of theatrical design.

Choice A is incorrect. Neither text describes how other lighting technicians responded to Appia’s ideas. Furthermore, this claim isn’t relevant to Bremner’s evaluation of Appia’s technical expertise. Choice C is incorrect. Neither text mentions anything about the opinions of theater practitioners who worked with Appia, so this answer choice does not relate to the claim about Appia’s level of technical expertise made by Bremner in Text 1. Choice D is incorrect. Neither text mentions anything about Appia’s familiarity with or ignorance of the use of music and sound in theater. Both focus on his expertise (or lack thereof) in lighting.

Text 1

In 2021, a team led by Amir Siraj hypothesized that the Chicxulub impactor—the object that struck the Yucatán Peninsula sixty-six million years ago, precipitating the mass extinction of the dinosaurs—was likely a member of the class of long-period comets. As evidence, Siraj cited the carbonaceous chondritic composition of samples from the Chicxulub impact crater as well as of samples obtained from long-period comet Wild 2 in 2006.

Text 2

Although long-period comets contain carbonaceous chondrites, asteroids are similarly rich in these materials. Furthermore, some asteroids are rich in iridium, as Natalia Artemieva points out, whereas long-period comets are not. Given the prevalence of iridium at the crater and, more broadly, in geological layers deposited worldwide following the impact, Artemieva argues that an asteroid is a more plausible candidate for the Chicxulub impactor.

Based on the texts, how would Artemieva likely respond to Sirajʼs hypothesis, as presented in Text 1?

A. By insisting that it overestimates how representative Wild 2 is of long-period comets as a class

B. By arguing that it does not account for the amount of iridium found in geological layers dating to the Chicxulub impact

C. By praising it for connecting the composition of Chicxulub crater samples to the composition of certain asteroids

D. By concurring that carbonaceous chondrites are prevalent in soil samples from sites distant from the Chicxulub crater

Correct Answer: B Rationale

Choice B is the best answer. Siraj’s hypothesis is that the Chicxulub impactor was a long-period comet. But Artemieva points to the iridium found in the crater and in “geological layers that were deposited worldwide after the impact” as evidence that it was actually an asteroid, not a long-period comet.

Choice A is incorrect. We can’t infer that this is how Artemieva would respond to Siraj’s hypothesis. Text 2 never discusses whether Wild 2 is representative of long-period comets in general. Rather, Text 2 presents Artemieva’s argument that the Chicxulub impactor was an asteroid, not a long-term comet. Choice C is incorrect. We can’t infer that this is how Artemieva would respond to Siraj’s hypothesis. Siraj’s hypothesis doesn’t make this connection: rather, Siraj hypothesizes that the Chicxulub impactor was a long-term comet. Choice D is incorrect. We can’t infer that this is how Artemieva would respond to Siraj’s hypothesis. “Soil samples from sites distant from the Chicxulub crater” is too vague. Only soil samples from sites that are connected to the impact in some way are involved in either hypothesis.

Text 1

Philosopher G.E. Mooreʼs most influential work entails the concept of common sense. He asserts that there are certain beliefs that all people, including philosophers, know instinctively to be true, whether or not they profess otherwise: among them, that they have bodies, or that they exist in a world with other objects that have three dimensions. Mooreʼs careful work on common sense may seem obvious but was in fact groundbreaking.

Text 2

External world skepticism is a philosophical stance supposing that we cannot be sure of the existence of anything outside our own minds. During a lecture, G.E. Moore once offered a proof refuting this stance by holding out his hands and saying, “Here is one hand, and here is another.” Many philosophers reflexively reject this proof (Annalisa Coliva called it “an obviously annoying failure”) but have found it a challenge to articulate exactly why the proof fails.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 1 most likely respond to proponents of the philosophical stance outlined in Text 2?

A. By agreeing with those proponents that Mooreʼs treatment of positions that contradict his own is fundamentally unserious

B. By suggesting that an instinctive distaste for Mooreʼs position is preventing external world skeptics from constructing a sufficiently rigorous refutation of Moore

C. By arguing that if it is valid to assert that some facts are true based on instinct, it is also valid to assert that some proofs are inadequate based on instinct

D. By pointing out that Moore would assert that external world skepticism is at odds with other beliefs those proponents must unavoidably hold

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. According to the author of Text 1, Moore’s definition of common sense—things we instinctively know are true—includes the belief that we all “exist in a world with other objects.” The author of Text 1 describes this notion as both “obvious” and “groundbreaking.” So it’s safe to infer that the author would observe that Moore would respond to external world skeptics by arguing that since everyone instinctively knows that things exist outside of their own minds, then external world skepticism must be wrong.

Choice A is incorrect. We can’t infer that the author of Text 1 would respond this way to external world skeptics. If anything, the author of Text 1 seems to agree with Moore. Choice B is incorrect. We can’t infer that the author of Text 1 would respond this way to external world skeptics. The author of Text 1 never mentions external world skeptics directly, let alone why they have a hard time refuting Moore’s position. Choice C is incorrect. We can’t infer that the author of Text 1 would respond this way to external world skeptics. Text 1’s presentation of Moore’s concept of common sense only includes the idea that some facts are true based on instinct—it doesn’t mention the idea that some proofs are inadequate based on instinct.

Text 1

Because literacy in Nahuatl script, the writing system of the Aztec Empire, was lost after Spain invaded central Mexico in the 1500s, it is unclear exactly how meaning was encoded in the scriptʼs symbols. Although many scholars had assumed that the symbols signified entire words, linguist Alfonso Lacadena theorized in 2008 that they signified units of language smaller than words: individual syllables.

Text 2

The growing consensus among scholars of Nahuatl script is that many of its symbols could signify either words or syllables, depending on syntax and content at any given site within a text. For example, the symbol signifying the word huipil (blouse) in some contexts could signify the syllable “pil” in others, as in the place name “Chipiltepec.” Thus, for the Aztecs, reading required a determination of how such symbols functioned each time they appeared in a text.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely characterize Lacadenaʼs theory, as described in Text 1?

A. By praising the theory for recognizing that the scriptʼs symbols could represent entire words

B. By arguing that the theory is overly influenced by the work of earlier scholars

C. By approving of the theoryʼs emphasis on how the script changed over time

D. By cautioning that the theory overlooks certain important aspects of how the script functioned

Correct Answer: D Rationale

Choice D is the best answer. Lacadena’s theory is that Nahuatl script symbols signified syllables, but the consensus described in Text 2 is that they can signify either symbols or full words, depending on the context. So the author of Text 2 would likely consider Lacadena’s theory too simplistic: it’s missing the importance of the context in determining the meaning of a symbol.

Choice A is incorrect. This conflicts with Text 1’s description of Lacadena’s theory. Lacadena’s theory is that Nahuatl script symbols signified syllables. Choice B is incorrect. This conflicts with Text 1’s description of Lacadena’s theory. Text 1 states that Lacadena’s theory differed from what earlier scholars believed. Choice C is incorrect. We can’t infer that this is how the author of Text 2 would characterize Lacadena’s theory. Neither text mentions how or even if the script changed over time.

Text 1

Many studies in psychology have shown that people seek out information even when they know in advance that they have no immediate use for it and that they wonʼt directly benefit from it. Such findings support the consensus view among researchers of curiosity: namely, that curiosity is not instrumental but instead represents a drive to acquire information for its own sake.

Text 2

While acknowledging that acquiring information is a powerful motivator, Rachit Dubey and colleagues ran an experiment to test whether emphasizing the usefulness of scientific information could increase curiosity about it. They found that when research involving rats and fruit flies was presented as having medical applications for humans, participants expressed greater interest in learning about it than when the research was not presented as useful.

Based on the texts, how would Dubey and colleagues (Text 2) most likely respond to the consensus view discussed in Text 1?

A. By suggesting that curiosity may not be exclusively motivated by the desire to merely acquire information

B. By conceding that people may seek out information that serves no immediate purpose only because they think they can use it later

C. By pointing out that it is challenging to determine when information-seeking serves no goal beyond acquiring information

D. By disputing the idea that curiosity can help explain apparently purposeless information-seeking behaviors

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. The researchers in Text 2 recognize that acquiring information is a powerful motivator, but showed that this motivation can still be affected by other factors, like whether or not the information is expected to be useful or not. This suggests that other desires may play a part in driving people to acquire information.

Choice B is incorrect. The consensus view in Text 1 is that people acquire information regardless of whether they think they can use it later. Dubey and colleagues acknowledge this fact (so they don’t claim people seek out information “only” because it might be useful later). Choice C is incorrect. This choice misreads the results of Dubey and colleagues’ study in Text 2. Neither text discusses the difficulty of determining the motivation for information- seeking. Choice D is incorrect. This choice contradicts Text 2, which starts with Dubey and colleagues “acknowledging that acquiring information is a powerful motivator” (i.e., agreeing that curiosity explains the seeking of apparently purposeless information). The research in Text 2 simply suggests that more than just curiosity can motivate information-seeking behavior when the information has a purpose.

Text 1

Polar bears sustain themselves primarily by hunting seals on the Arctic sea ice, but rising ocean temperatures are causing the ice to diminish, raising concerns about polar bear population declines as these large predatorsʼ seal- hunting habitats continue to shrink. A 2020 study examining polar bear populations across the Arctic concluded that populations affected by sea-ice loss are at great risk of extinction by the end of the twenty -first century.

Text 2

Monitoring carried out by researchers from the Norwegian Polar Institute shows that the polar bear population on the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard remains stable and well nourished despite rapidly declining sea ice in recent years. The researchers attribute this populationʼs resilience in part to a shift in feeding strategies: in addition to hunting seals, the Svalbard polar bears have begun relying on a diet of reindeer meat and birdsʼ eggs.

Based on the texts, how would the researchers in Text 2 most likely respond to the conclusion presented in the underlined portion of Text 1?

A. By noting that it neglects the possibility of some polar bear populations adapting to changes in their environment

B. By suggesting that it is likely incorrect about the rates at which warming ocean temperatures have caused sea ice to melt in the Arctic

C. By asserting that it overlooks polar bear populations that have not yet been affected by loss of seal-hunting habitats

D. By arguing that it fails to account for polar bearsʼ reliance on a single seal-hunting strategy

Correct Answer: A Rationale

Choice A is the best answer. Text 2 describes how the Svalbard polar bears have adapted to the loss of sea ice by diversifying their diet and feeding on reindeer and seabird eggs, resulting in a “stable and well nourished” population despite environmental challenges. This counters the underlined claim that polar bears facing a loss of sea ice are at “great risk of extinction” by the end of the century.

Choice B is incorrect. Text 2 does not challenge the fact that sea ice is rapidly declining in the Arctic due to warming ocean temperatures. In fact, it states that the Svalbard polar bears have faced “rapidly declining sea ice in recent years.” Choice C is incorrect. The claim in Text 1 is specific to polar bear populations affected by the loss of seal hunting habitats, so unaffected populations are irrelevant to the claim. Also, Text 2 doesn’t mention any polar bear populations that haven’t yet been affected by loss of seal hunting habitats. It focuses on a population that has been affected by sea-ice loss but has managed to survive and thrive nevertheless. Choice D is incorrect. Text 2 doesn’t imply that polar bears rely on a single seal-hunting strategy. In fact, the researcher in Text 2 would say that Text 1 fails to account for polar bears’ ability to develop other hunting strategies and food sources.