Public Opinion, Media, and Political Participation

Public Opinion

What opinion refers to the collective attitudes, beliefs, and opinions of the general public on political issues, leaders, institutions, and events.

Agents of Socialization

Agents of socialization are influences that shape individuals' political views and behavior. These include family, schools, peers, media, and religious institutions.

Political Ideology

What refers to a coherent set of beliefs about the role of government, individual rights, and the economy (e.g., liberalism, conservatism).

Partisanship

Partisanship refers to a person's attachment to a political party or political affiliation.

Asch Study

A classic social psychology experiment that demonstrates the power of conformity, showing how individuals are influenced by group pressure to give incorrect answers.

John Zaller - Stages Model

model suggests that public opinion formation is a two-step process: (1) individuals receive information from the media, (2) they apply that information to form an opinion. This involves 'receive,' 'accept,' and 'sample' stages.

Online Processing Model

A theory/model suggesting that individuals continuously update their opinions based on new information, forming a 'running tally' of all the information they've encountered.

Psychology Models - Heuristics

Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts used by individuals to make decisions quickly, often based on available information or simple rules of thumb (e.g., party identification as a shortcut to forming political opinions).

Public Opinion Polls

Surveys conducted to measure public opinion on various issues, candidates, or policies.

Population

The entire group you want to draw conclusions about.

Sample

A subset of the population selected for study.

Simple Random Sample

A sampling method where each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Sample Size

The number of individuals surveyed in a poll; larger sample sizes typically lead to more reliable results.

Margin of Error

The range within which the true value of the population's opinion is likely to fall, expressed as a plus or minus percentage.

Question Wording

The way a question is phrased in a poll can affect how people respond, introducing potential bias.

Social Desirability Effect

The tendency for respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others, often leading to inaccurate results.

Stimulate Turnout

When public opinion is favorable toward a candidate or issue, it may encourage people to vote.

Depress Turnout

Negative public opinion or apathy can decrease voter participation.

Bandwagon Effect

People may support a candidate or idea because others are perceived to be doing so.

Underdog Effect

People may support a candidate perceived as an underdog, often to help them overcome the odds.

NYT v. U.S. - 'Watch Dog'

This case (also known as the Pentagon Papers case) reinforced the media's role in holding the government accountable by publishing classified documents that revealed government deception.

Media Role

The media serves as the primary source of information, setting the agenda, framing issues, and acting as a 'watchdog' over government and institutions.

Minimal Effects Theory

Suggests that media has a small effect on people's opinions because individuals select media that aligns with their existing beliefs.

Social Learning Theory

Suggests that people learn behaviors and norms through media exposure, particularly television.

Cultivation Theory

Argues that long-term media exposure can shape people's perceptions of reality.

Agenda-setting Theory

The media doesn't tell us what to think, but it influences what we think about by focusing attention on certain issues.

Agenda Setting

The media's ability to prioritize issues and direct public attention toward them.

Priming

Media influences the importance people place on issues by providing context and emphasizing certain aspects.

Affect Priming

Media exposure that influences people's emotional reactions, affecting their perceptions of issues or candidates.

Framing

How the media presents and structures information about an issue or event, influencing how it is understood by the public.

Selection Bias

The tendency of the media to cover certain issues or stories while ignoring others, shaping public perceptions.

Trust in Media

Public confidence in the media's fairness and reliability, which has fluctuated over time due to biases, sensationalism, and misinformation.

Shrinking Sound Bite

The reduction of political statements and speeches into shorter, more digestible segments, often limiting the depth of information.

Traditional Media

Includes newspapers, TV, and radio.

New Media

Refers to online platforms like social media, blogs, and podcasts, which have transformed how information is consumed and shared.

Regulation of the Media

Refers to government policies and laws that govern the ownership, content, and operation of the media.

Suffrage

The right to vote, given to create good citizens, enabling people to participate in the democratic process and hold their government accountable.

Material Benefits of Voting

Tangible benefits, like policies that benefit the individual.

Solidary Benefits of Voting

Social benefits derived from participating in the democratic process, like a sense of community.

Purposive Benefits of Voting

The satisfaction from supporting a cause or political ideology.

Collective Rewards

Benefits that are shared by all, such as public goods.

Selective Rewards

Benefits that are exclusive to those who participate or belong to a group.

Free-Rider Problem

The tendency of individuals to benefit from collective goods without participating in the effort to obtain those goods.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one's actions can influence political processes.

Paradox of Participation

The idea that the benefits of voting are often minimal on an individual level, yet people still vote due to a sense of duty or civic responsibility.

Political Parties

Organizations that seek to control government through the electoral process by nominating candidates, winning elections, and implementing policies.

Why Parties Matter

Political parties provide organization to the political system, help structure choices for voters, and are key to government functionality.

Two-Party System

A political system dominated by two major political parties, such as the U.S. (Democrats and Republicans).

Proportional Representative Systems

An electoral system in which parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive.

Single Member Districts

Electoral districts in which only one representative is elected, leading to a tendency toward a two-party system.

Winner-Take-All Election System

An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they do not receive a majority.

Majority System

A system in which a candidate must receive more than 50% of the vote to win.

Plurality

The candidate with the most votes wins, even if they do not receive a majority.

Micro-targeting

The practice of tailoring political messages to small, specific groups of voters based on detailed data analysis.

DNC and RNC

The Democratic National Committee and Republican National Committee, which organize the national conventions and coordinate party activities.

Soft Money

refers to unregulated donations to political parties.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act

An Act from (2002) aimed to limit the influence of soft money in elections.

Dark Money

Political spending by organizations that do not have to disclose their donors, often used to influence elections without transparency.

PACs

Political Action Committees that raise money to support or oppose political candidates.

Super PACs

Super PACs can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money but are prohibited from directly coordinating with candidates.

Party Machine

A highly organized political group that controls a political party and rewards loyalists with jobs and benefits.

Bosses

Political leaders who control party machines and have substantial influence over nominations and elections.

Patronage

The practice of rewarding political supporters with government jobs or favors.

Realignment

A significant and lasting shift in the political landscape, such as when a party gains or loses major support among key voter groups.

Third Parties

Political parties that are not one of the two major parties. They often play a spoiler role or push new ideas into the political system.

Closed Primary

Only registered party members can vote.

Open Primary

Any registered voter can vote, regardless of party affiliation.

Majority System

A candidate must win more than 50% of the votes to win.

Proportional Representation

Seats in a legislature are allocated based on the percentage of votes each party receives.

Straight-ticket Voting

Voting for all candidates from the same party.

Split-ticket Voting

Voting for candidates from different parties on the same ballot.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing electoral districts, typically done every 10 years after the census.

Gerrymandering

The manipulation of district boundaries to favor a particular political party.

Majority-Minority Districts

Electoral districts designed to give minority groups a greater chance of electing candidates from their group.

Electoral College

The system used to elect the President of the U.S., where electors from each state cast votes based on the state's popular vote.

Direct Democracy

A form of democracy where citizens directly vote on laws and policies.

Ballot Initiatives

A process where citizens propose new laws or amendments to the state constitution by gathering signatures to place the issue on the ballot.

Referendum

A direct vote by the public on a specific issue or law, often used to approve or reject legislation passed by the legislature.

Recall Elections

A procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office before their term ends.

Campaigns

The activities and strategies used by candidates and parties to win elections.

Fundraising

The process of raising money to support political campaigns, often through donations, events, and PACs.

Citizens United v. FEC - Money is Speech

A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled that spending money on political campaigns is a form of free speech, leading to the rise of Super PACs and unlimited spending.

Public Funding

Government money provided to candidates to help finance their campaigns, typically for those who agree to limit their spending.

Prospective Voting

Voting based on a candidate's proposed future policies.

Retrospective Voting

Voting based on the incumbent's past performance.