Unit 2 AP Psychology

A lot of the phenomena mentioned in this set is literally based on perception: your brain decides to work in different ways to interpret info. This unit is literally just "your brain decides to interpret data in unique ways."

Top-Down Processing

Driven by previous expectations, schemas (frameworks for thinking) and interprets information

Bottom-Down Processing

A type of processing where you’re operating on sensory data, usually when data is new or unfamiliar. You learn by observing and taking in data rather than already knowing about it

Perceptual Set

Percieving something differently due to an emotion being percieved. “See what you expect to see” based on mood/context

Closure

Gestalt Psych (GP): Filling in gaps to create a whole shape

Figure-Ground

GP: Seperating objects from the background

Proximity

GP: Grouping things close together as being togetherS

Similarity

GP: Grouping things that look alike

Selective Attention

Choosing to focus on one thing at a time

Inattentional Blindness

Missing something in front of you because focus is elsewhere

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in a visual scene

Binocular Cues

Difference between the two eyes’ images calculates depth (Retinal Disparity) and the eyes turn inward (Converge) to look at an object close up

Relative Size

Smaller image is interpreted as being farther away

Interposition

One object blocking another looks closer

Relative Clarity

It looks like distant objects are blurrier

Texture Gradient

Your eyes percieve less detail with further distance

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines look like they converge at a point

Height in Plane

Higher objects in the visual plane look like they’re farther awayP

Phi Phenomenon

Lights blinking in sequence look like they’re moving

Stroboscopic Motion

Rapid series of still images moving creates an illusion of motion

Concepts

Mental categories to group similar people, objects, ideas; helps organize thinking and recognize patterns

Prototypes

The best or most logical example of a concept (EX: when you’re told fruit, you imagine an apple, not a tomato)

Schemas

Mental frameworks that drive thinking by organizing information into specific categories

Assimilation

Fitting new info into your previous schema

Accommodation

Changing what we already know to fit new info

Algorithms

Step-by-step methods that result in the right solution if done correctly. Good for logic and math; helpful to discover but may be time consuming

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts, rule of thumb. They’re faster but may result in error and can’t apply to everything,

Availability Heuristic

Basing judgements based on what comes to mind first (EX: overestimating crime rates due to news)

Representativeness heuristic

Judging something based on how well something matches a prototype (EX: thinking that a quiet kid is a writer instead of a lawyer)

Anchoring (Hueristic)

Relying too much on the first piece of information you recieve (EX: thinking that clothes all cost a specific amount and being shocked when the price increases)

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects with only one use (lacking outside-the-box thinking)

Framing effect

How info is presented affects decision (EX: fail rate compared to pass rate)

Priming

Recent experiences shaping decisionsor thoughts (EX: seeing yellow and thinking banana)

Confirmation Bias

Looking for info to support an already held belief

Hindsight Bias

“I knew it” after something already happened (when you didn’t)

Overconfidence Bias

Overestimating accuracy or skills

Gambler’s Fallacy

Believing that luck will occur after a long time (one chance to win)

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing something only because you’ve invested time/money/effort

Working Memory

Holding and using info in your mind

Cognitive Flexibility

Adapting to new or unexpected situations easily

Inhibitory Control

Resisting distractions or impulses

Divergent thinking

Coming up with many solutions to one problem

Creative Process

the process of discovery: preparing, incubating, insight, verification

Explicit/Declarative Memory

Consciously being able to recall general knowledge

Semantic

Facts and general knowledge that can be explicitly recalled

Episodic

Personal experiences that can be explicitly recalled

Implicit/Nondeclarative Memory

Doesn’t require conscious thought to remember

Procedural

Skills and habits that can be implicitly recalled

Priming

Skills and habits that can be implicitly recalled

Prospective Memory

Remembering things to do in the future (prospect)

Encoding

getting information from memory

Automatic Processing

Encoding: unconsciously declaring

Effortful Processing

Encoding: intentionally declaring

Retrival

Pulling information out from memory; better to retrive when you match the same conditions; can be triggered by cues

Sensory Memory

Briefly holds information (Iconic = visual lasts 1 second) and (Echoic = sound lasts 3-4 seconds)

Short-Term Memory

Holds 5 - 9 items, and lasts 20 seconds unless it is rehearsed

Long-Term Memory

Unlimited capacity/duration, holds both implicit and explicit memory

Central Executive

Directs Attention, coordinates to all parts

Phonological Loop

Deals with processing verbal and auditory info

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Deals with visual and spatial info

Working memory model

How we process information on a short-term scale in real time (know the diagram and what it represents)

Shallow to Deep Memory

Processing it structurally, phonemically, and semantically

Structural

What something looks like

Phonemic

How it sounds

Semantic

Meaning + linking to prior knowledge to deeply remember

LTP

Repeated learning and recall strengthening neural connectivity and helps convert to long-term memory

Encoding

First step in memory: converting information into a format that can be retrieved later on

Elaborative Rehersal

Making meaningful connections to things you already know about the topic

Self-testing

Forces retrieval through taking a practice test; usually under the same conditions as well

Method of Loci

Associating items with locations in a familiar place

Chunking

Grouping information into smaller, organized chunks

Spacing effect

Studying over time (distributed practice) helps because you can remember more

Primacy + Recency Effect

Items at the start and end of the list are remembered better

Autobiographical Memory

(LESS IMPORTANT VOCAB): Some people can perfectly recall personal information: usually because they may have more grey matter in memory areas, can form stronger emotional or personal connections, and may be able to frequently recall more

Retrogade

Forgetting past memories due to damage

Anterogade

Being unable to form new memories due to hippocampus (memory processing area) damage

Alzheimer’s Disease

Progressive brain disorder that starts with hurting short term memory, long term memory, and then stops cognitive abilities and function

Infantile Amnesia

Unable to recall memories before age 3 or 4 because of immature brain regions and lack of language/self at that age

Recall

Pulling information out without cues

Recognition

Being able to identify the right answer

Forgetting curve

We forget most of what we learn right after; re-reviewing is important to slow forgetting

Storage Decay

Even well-encoded, long term memory can fade if unused

Encoding failure

Info never fully entered long-term memory; usually with shallow processing

Retrival Failure

Memory exists but can’t be retrived right away

Proactive Interference

Old info makes it hard to remember new information (EX: can’t remember new password because old one interferes)

Retroactive Interference

New info makes it hard to remember old ones (EX: can’t remember previous Chemistry concept after doing an old one)

Repression

Blocking memories that are painful or anxiety-incuding (motivated forgetting). May lose memories and suppress them due to trauma

Misinformation Effect

New, misleading info gets added to an existing memory (being gaslit out of logic)

Source Amensia

Learning something and then forgetting where you heard it (EX: forgeting where you learned something)

Constructive Memory

Memories are being rebuilt when we recall it; may accidentally fill in gaps in recall

Imagination Inflation

Imagining an event can increase belief that it happened

Blending

Repeated events can merge in minds

IQ

Measuring intelligence quotients; useful for educational placement and identifying disabilities, but has been historically misused to justify discrimination. These tests are usually carried out on a basis of cultural context as well

Standardized Test

Consistent procedures and scoring for all

Relability

Test gives consistent results depending on how it’s given out

Validity

When the test measures specifically what it’s meant to: can construct (measure the right concept) and can predict performance (EX: GPA)

Test Norms

Scores are interpreted based on large comparison groups and must be updated over time

Sterotype Threat

Anxiety from fear of confirming sterotypes while testing harms testing (EX: a student who is told they will fail will do worse out of anxiety)

Socio-culture biases

Certain biases may make the test easier/harder; and this may disadvantage certain groups

Fixed Mindset

Those who believe that intelligence is unchangable will never be able to improve and will give up easily

Growth Mindset

Belief that intelligence can improve with effort and can result in resilience and learning sucess.