Criminology- AIl unit 2 topics

XYY theory

A genetic mutation characterized by an extra Y chromosome in males, known as super male syndrome, associated with features like being tall and low intelligence.

Jacob et al.

Researchers who suggested that men with XYY syndrome are more aggressive and violent than other males.

Concordance Rate

The degree to which twins share a particular characteristic; in twin studies, for criminal behavior, higher rates in monozygotic twins suggest genetic influence.

Atavistic form

Lombroso's theory that criminals have physical features of primitive ancestors, believed to be inherited.

Eysenck's personality dimensions

Three dimensions of personality: Extroversion vs Introversion, Neuroticism vs Stability, and Psychoticism vs Normality, linked to criminal behavior.

Bowlby's maternal deprivation

The theory that early separation from the mother negatively affects a child's emotional and intellectual development, potentially leading to criminal behavior.

Relative deprivation

A situation where individuals or groups feel deprived of something they believe they are entitled to, which may lead to crime.

Strain theory

Merton’s theory positing that crime arises when individuals are socialized to expect success but find limited opportunities to achieve it.

Labelling theory

The sociological perspective that society's labels influence individuals' self-identities and can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Restorative justice

A voluntary process involving offenders and victims to discuss the impact of crime and agree on a way to repair the harm.

Differential association theory

Sutherland's theory suggesting that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who communicate criminal values and attitudes.

Social learning theory

Bandura's theory indicating that people learn by observing and imitating others, which can include criminal behavior.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, due to the terms of the prophecy itself, through the behaviors and actions of those who believe.

Deindividuation

A psychological state in which individuals lose their sense of personal identity and responsibility, often leading to impulsive or deviant behavior.

Institutionalisation

The process by which individuals in institutions like prisons or asylums adopt the norms, values, and behaviors of the institution, sometimes hindering their ability to function outside.

XYY theory

A genetic mutation characterized by an extra Y chromosome in males, known as super male syndrome, associated with features like being tall and low intelligence.

Jacob et al.

Researchers who suggested that men with XYY syndrome are more aggressive and violent than other males.

Concordance Rate

The degree to which twins share a particular characteristic; in twin studies, for criminal behavior, higher rates in monozygotic twins suggest genetic influence.

Atavistic form

Lombroso's theory that criminals have physical features of primitive ancestors, believed to be inherited.

Eysenck's personality dimensions

Three dimensions of personality: Extroversion vs Introversion, Neuroticism vs Stability, and Psychoticism vs Normality, linked to criminal behavior.

Bowlby's maternal deprivation

The theory that early separation from the mother negatively affects a child's emotional and intellectual development, potentially leading to criminal behavior.

Relative deprivation

A situation where individuals or groups feel deprived of something they believe they are entitled to, which may lead to crime.

Strain theory

Merton’s theory positing that crime arises when individuals are socialized to expect success but find limited opportunities to achieve it.

Labelling theory

The sociological perspective that society's labels influence individuals' self-identities and can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Restorative justice

A voluntary process involving offenders and victims to discuss the impact of crime and agree on a way to repair the harm.

Differential association theory

Sutherland's theory suggesting that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who communicate criminal values and attitudes.

Social learning theory

Bandura's theory indicating that people learn by observing and imitating others, which can include criminal behavior.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, due to the terms of the prophecy itself, through the behaviors and actions of those who believe.

Deindividuation

A psychological state in which individuals lose their sense of personal identity and responsibility, often leading to impulsive or deviant behavior.

Institutionalisation

The process by which individuals in institutions like prisons or asylums adopt the norms, values, and behaviors of the institution, sometimes hindering their ability to function outside.

Twin studies in criminology

Research method comparing the similarity of criminal behavior between monozygotic and dizygotic twins to assess genetic vs. environmental influences.

Adoption studies

Research assessing the influence of genetics and environment on criminal behavior by comparing adopted children with their biological and adoptive parents.

Super-male syndrome

An outdated term for XYY syndrome, characterized by above-average height, but not consistently linked to increased aggression or criminality.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in emotional processing, particularly fear and aggression; abnormalities may be linked to criminal behavior.

Prefrontal cortex

The brain region responsible for executive functions like planning and decision-making; deficits have been associated with impulsivity and antisocial behavior.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation; low levels have been associated with aggression and impulsivity.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward and motivation; imbalances may contribute to addictive and impulsive behaviors.

Classical conditioning

Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response; can contribute to the development of criminal behavior.

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on their outcomes; can explain how criminal behavior is maintained or extinguished.

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

The theory that frustration leads to aggression; can explain some types of violent crime.

Cognitive distortions

Biased or irrational thought patterns that can lead to maladaptive behavior, including criminal behavior. Examples include minimizing harm, blaming others, and irrational optimism.

Moral development theory

Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, suggesting that individuals progress through stages of moral development. Criminals may be stuck in earlier stages of moral reasoning.

Social disorganization theory

The theory that crime is more likely in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control.

Opportunity theory

Cloward and Ohlin's theory that criminal behavior is dependent on the availability of illegitimate opportunities.

Marxist theory

The perspective that crime is a product of social inequality and the capitalist system.

Social control theory

Hirschi's theory that people engage in crime when their bonds to society are weakened.

Primary deviance

Lemert's concept referring to initial acts of rule-breaking that do not result in the individual being labeled as deviant.

Secondary deviance

Lemert's concept referring to deviant acts that occur as a result of an individual internalizing a deviant label.

Deviancy amplification

The process by which deviant behavior is magnified as a result of societal reactions to deviance.

Token economy

A form of behavior therapy that uses tokens as positive reinforcement for desired behaviors in institutional settings.

Anger management

Therapeutic programs designed to help individuals control their anger and reduce aggressive behavior.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

A therapeutic approach that focuses on changing malad

XYY theory statistics

Males with an extra Y chromosome (XYY) occur in approximately 1 in 1,000 male births. Some studies have suggested a higher representation of XYY individuals in prison populations, but this has been largely discredited.

Jacob et al. statistical support

While Jacob et al. proposed a link between XYY syndrome and aggression, subsequent research has not consistently supported this claim. The association between genetics and aggression is complex and multifactorial.

Concordance Rate Statistics

Monozygotic (identical) twins typically show higher concordance rates for criminal behavior compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins. Meta-analysis indicates a moderate genetic influence on antisocial behavior, with heritability estimates ranging from 40% to 50%.

Atavistic form statistical validity

Lombroso’s theory has been widely discredited due to methodological flaws and racist undertones. There is no reliable statistical evidence to support the existence of an ‘atavistic form’ associated with criminality.

Eysenck's personality dimensions research

Eysenck's original model has been refined over time. Modern personality research suggests that the relationship between personality traits and criminal behavior is complex and mediated by various factors.

Bowlby's maternal deprivation nuance

Bowlby's theory highlights the importance of early attachment; however, the link between maternal deprivation and criminality is not straightforward. Many children experiencing early separation do not become criminals.

Relative deprivation empirical support

Relative deprivation is often cited as a contributing factor to crime, particularly in areas with high inequality. Studies have shown correlations between income inequality and crime rates, though causation is complex and multifaceted.

Strain theory modern relevance

Strain theory has been influential in criminology. Research suggests that individuals experiencing strain and lacking legitimate opportunities are more likely to engage in criminal behavior.

Labeling theory research support

Labeling theory emphasizes the role of societal reactions in shaping individual behavior. Studies have demonstrated how labeling can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies and increased involvement in crime.

Restorative justice effectiveness studies

Restorative justice programs have shown promise in reducing recidivism and increasing victim satisfaction. Meta-analyses indicate that restorative justice can be more effective than traditional criminal justice approaches in certain cases.

Differential association theory modern applications

Differential association theory highlights that individuals learn criminal behavior from close contacts. Research consistently demonstrates that association with delinquent peers increases the likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior.

Social learning theory empirical evidence

Social learning theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through observation and imitation. Studies demonstrate that exposure to violence and criminal behavior increases the risk of individuals engaging in similar behavior.

Self-fulfilling prophecy relevance

Self-fulfilling prophecies can influence a range of behaviors, including criminal behavior. If individuals are labeled as criminal, they may internalize this label and engage in further criminal activity.

Deindividuation real world examples

Deindividuation can occur in crowd settings or online interactions. Research suggests that deindividuation can increase impulsive and deviant behavior, as individuals feel less personally accountable.

Institutionalization effects

Institutionalization can have negative effects on individuals. Individuals may become dependent on the institution and struggle to function independently upon release.

Twin studies in criminology design

Twin studies compare criminal behavior between monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins to assess genetic vs environmental influences. Higher concordance rates in MZ twins suggest a stronger genetic component.

Adoption studies methodology

Adoption studies examine the influence of genetics and environment. Comparisons are made between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents to isolate genetic and environmental effects on criminal behavior.

Super-male syndrome factual accuracy

The term 'super-male syndrome' is outdated and misleading. While some studies suggested increased aggression and criminality in XYY males, this has not been consistently supported by research.

Amygdala function in aggression

The amygdala plays a key role in emotional processing, including aggression. Abnormalities in amygdala structure and function have been linked to increased aggression and violent behavior.

Prefrontal cortex function in crime

The prefrontal cortex is involved in executive functions like planning and decision-making. Deficits in prefrontal cortex function have been associated with impulsivity, antisocial behavior, and increased risk of criminal behavior.

Serotonin role in aggression

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation. Low levels of serotonin have been linked to aggression and impulsivity, increasing the risk of violent behavior.

Dopamine effect on behavior

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with reward and motivation. Imbalances in dopamine levels may contribute to addictive and impulsive behaviors, increasing the risk of criminal activity.

Classical conditioning and crime

Classical conditioning involves learning through association. Neutral stimuli can become associated with stimuli that evoke a response, leading to the development of criminal behavior through learned associations.

Operant conditioning and crime

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences. Behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on their outcomes, explaining how criminal behavior is maintained or extinguished based on reinforcement and punishment.

Frustration as cause of crime

The frustration-aggression hypothesis suggests that frustration leads to aggression. While not all frustration results in aggression, it can explain some types of violent crime, particularly when individuals lack coping mechanisms.

Cognitive distortions impact

Cognitive distortions are biased or irrational thought patterns that can lead to maladaptive behavior, including criminal behavior. Cognitive distortions can include minimizing harm, blaming others, and irrational optimism.

Moral development relevance

Moral development theory, proposed by Kohlberg, suggests individuals progress through stages of moral reasoning. Criminals may be stuck in earlier stages of moral reasoning, demonstrating less sophisticated moral judgment.

Social disorganization theory causation

Social disorganization theory posits that crime is more likely in communities with weak social ties and absence of social control. Factors like poverty, residential instability, and ethnic heterogeneity contribute to social disorganization.

Opportunity theory main idea

Opportunity theory, developed by Cloward and Ohlin, suggests that criminal behavior depends on availability of illegitimate opportunities. Limited legitimate opportunities and access to illegitimate opportunities contribute to criminal behavior.

Marxist theory relevance

Marxist theory views crime as a product of social inequality and the capitalist system. The capitalist system creates conditions that lead to crime, such as poverty, alienation, and competition for resources.

Social control theory summary

Social control theory, proposed by Hirschi, argues that people engage in crime when their bonds to society are weakened. Strong social bonds deter individuals from engaging in criminal behavior

Primary deviance refers to initial acts of rule-breaking that may not result in individual being labeled as deviant. These acts may be isolated incidents and not indicative