Unit 3 Study Guide (3.1+3.2)

Developmental psychologist

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, & social-emotional development through the lifespan

Cross-sectional study

Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudal Study

Research that follows & retests the same people over time

Nature vs Nurture

genes vs. experience

Continuity vs. Stages

is development gradual or doe it happen in distinct stages

Stability vs. Change

Do traits persist during life vs. change as we age

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals & viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development & cause harm

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes & they look away sooner

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Temperament

A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity & intensity

critical period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

pruning of neural connections

the natural activity depended process of elimination weak or unused neural connections in the brain to optimize neural network efficiency

Rooting reflexes

searching for the nipple (looking for food)

Startle reflex

throw their head back, extend their limbs, cry, and pull them back (reaction to falling or loud noises)

grasp reflex

stroking the palm causes the fingers to close in a strong curling grip

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes & interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accomidation

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor (Birth - 2 years)

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions & motor activities

object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational (2 years - 7 years)

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

Theory of mind

People’s ideas about their own & others’ mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, & thoughts, & the behaviors these might predict

Concrete operational stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events

law of conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, & number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Formal operational stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

criticisms of piaget

development happens earlier than he thought

Zone of proximal development

Space between what a learner can do without assistance & what they cannot do at all; part of Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory of childhood cognition

Comfort (touch) over nourishment

out need o touch and be touched by something soft and warm-true source of attachment

Imprinting and critical periods

process by which certain animals form immediate attachment during a critical period early in life

Authoritarian Parenting

impose rules and expect obedience for obedience sake

permissive parenting

submit to their children’s desire, make few demands, and use little punishment

authoritative parenting

both demanding and responsive-set, enforce and explain rules so child understands the reasoning behind them (best type)

neglectful

careless, inattentive, and don’t seek close relationships with kids

ecological systems theory

A theory of social environment’s influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences

individual

development is shaped by 5 interacting environmental systems

microsystem

immediate, direct contact groups (home, school, community)

Mesosystem

relationships between microsystem groups (parents and peers)

exosystem

environment that indirectly affect a person (a parent’s workplace)

Macrosystem

cultural influences (values, beliefs, economic and political systems)

Chronosystem

life stage and related event (moving, economic recession)

trust vs. mistrust (birth to one year)

If parent meets the child’s needs a basic trust forms

autonomy vs. shame and doubt(1 to 3)

Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6)

Learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or feel guilty about efforts to be independent

competence vs. inferiority (6 to puberty)

Learn the pleasure of doing things well, or feel inferior

Identity vs. role confusion (teens to early 20s)

We test out different roles and settle on 1 identity, or we become confused about who we are

 generativity vs. stagnation (40s to 60s)

Discover a sense of contributing to the world, or feel a lack of purpose

integrity vs. despair (60s and up)

Feel a sense of satisfaction or failure when reflecting on life

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, & external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary sex characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts & hips, male voice quality, & body hair

adolescent brain development

a profound, maturation driven reorganization of the brain occurring between ages 10 and early 20s

neurocognitive disorders

declines in mental function caused by brain injury, disease, or medical conditions

alzheiime’s - deterioration of neurons that produce which neurotransmitter

ACh

Gender

In psychology, the attitudes, feelings, & behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex

Sex

In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, & intersex

Gender role

A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, & traits for men & for women

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrates with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

Neutral stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no

response before conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that

unconditionally - naturally & automatically -

triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

Unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally

occurring response (such as salivation) to an

unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral

stimulus that, after association with an

unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a

conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a

previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

(CS)

Taste aversion

an aversion or distaste for a particular smell or taste that was association with a negative reaction

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

biological predisposition to conditioning

easier to condition fear of things we are biologically predisposed to be afraid of

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning , any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continue reinforcement

Fixed-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

1. Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

positve punishment

admisters an aversive stimulus

negative punishment

withdraw a rewarding stimulus

Albert Bandura and the BoBo Doll experiment

Children learn and imitate aggressive behavior by observing adults

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empath

Latent Learning

learning that is “hidden“ until there is a reason to use it

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Prosocial behaviors

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Antisocial behaviors

Negative,destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.