Unit 5: Cognition

Cognition

Thinking & Mental Processing, Memory, decision making, problem solving, language, intelligence, creativity, etc.

Encoding

Bringing in information from the environment & processing it

Storage

Holding information in memory over time

Retrieval

Locating & pulling info into consciousness from memory

Structural (visual)

Encoding what the stimulus looks like

Phonemic (acoustic)

Encoding what the stimulus sounds like

Semantic

Encoding the meaning of a stimulus

Elaborative encoding

Encoding information by making connections between new information and information already in memory (even stronger if the information is about yourself)

Levels of Processing Model of Memory

The deeper we encode/process information, the more likely we are to remember the information

Which forms of encoding are shallow?

Structural and phonemic encoding

Which forms of encoding are deep?

Semantic encoding

Information Processing model

This model states that our memory is made up of three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

brings in info through all 5 senses for < 1 second (each sense has its own register)

Iconic memory

sensory memory of visual stimuli (~1/10 sec)

Echoic memory

sensory memory of auditory stimuli (~3-4 sec)

How is info transferred from sensory memory to STM?

Info selectively attended to is sent here from sensory memory

How is info primarily retained? (STM)

(Maintenance) Rehearsal/ Repetition

What is the primary type of encoding? (STM)

Acoustic/Phonemic

What is the capacity of STM?

7 +/- 2 items

What is the duration of STM?

~20 seconds

How is the info transferred from STM to LTM?

encoding

Why is STM often referred from STM to LTM?

Info is lost in about 15 to 30 seconds

Long-Term Memory

Information that is encoded is stored in LTM

What is the capacity of LTM?

Unlimited

What is the duration of LTM?

Forever

What is the primary type of encoding? (LTM)

Semantic (semantic + visual is best)

What is consolidation?

Solidifying a memory; making it more permanent

When does memory consolidation typically occur?

Info is retrieved from LTM to STM

Working Memory Model

An integrated understanding of the working memory that involves the processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

Central Executive

A memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad

Phonological loop

A memory component that briefly holds auditory & speech based information

Visuospatial sketchpad

A memory component that briefly holds information about objects' appearance and location in space

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units (sometimes done purposefully, many times done automatically)

Mnemonics

Memory aids that usually involve vivid imagery or unusual associations

Distributed practice/studying

High recall

Massed practice

Low recall

Which produces better recall?

Distributed/Space practice

Self-referent encoding

A form of elaborative encoding that involves making connections between new information to be learned and personally meaningful information

Hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Schemas

Mental representations of categories, people, events, etc. based on experience

Semantic Networks

An integrated web of information

Explicit (declarative) memories

Retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and "declare". Learned through effortful processing

Episodic memories

Memories of personally experienced events

Semantic memories

Memories of facts and general knowledge

Implicit (nondeclarative) memories

Learned physical skills or classically conditioned associations (independent of conscious recollection; encoded through automatic processing)

Procedural memories

Memories of learned physical skills

Flashbulb Memories

Detailed, vivid memories of emotionally significant events (usually when we first heard the info)

Retrospective memories

remembering events from the past; previously learned information

Prospective memories

remembering to perform actions in the future

Retrieval Cues

Anything that aids in memory retrieval (can be explicit or implicit)

Recall

Retrieval of information without any retrieval cues

Recognition

Retrieval of information based on the selection from an array of options

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Context-Dependent Memory

Remember info best in the same/similar physical location or environment as where info was learned.

State-Dependent Memory

Remembering info. best in the same physiological state as when we learned the info.

Mood-Congruency

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Serial Position Curve/Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list & at the end of a "list". (Ex. "U shaped retention curve")

Primacy Effect

Better recall of info at the beginning of a series of info

Recency Effect

Better recall of info at the end of a series of information

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simply rereading information

Metacognition

The awareness of our own thoughts and mental processes

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Retrieval of incomplete information

Constructive Memory

Using existing knowledge/schemas/experiences to fill in the gaps in info during encoding and retrieval. (note: constructive memory is an involuntary & unconscious process. We don't do it on purpose & don't know it's happening)

The Misinformation Effect (Loftus)

Occurs when memory is altered by misleading postevent information (ex: mood, framing)

Imagination Inflation

An increased tendency to falsely remember that an item has been seen, or an action has been performed, when it has only been imagined

Source Amnesia

The inability to recall where, when, or how one has learned knowledge that has been acquired and retained

The Forgetting Curve

*most forgetting happens within the first hour
*after about 9 hrs, memory is relatively constant

Relearning

After forgetting, it takes less time/ fewer trials to relearn info

Encoding Failure

Error is not in retrieval.... We never encoded the information into LTM in the first place

Decay

The gradual erosion of memory (memories fade: If you don't use it, you lose it)

Interference

"Competition" with other similar information

Retroactive interference

New (similar) information impairs the recall of old information

Proactive interference

Old information prevents the learning or recall of new (similar) information

Inference Mnemonic

P - roactive
O - ld interferes with new
R - etrosepctice
N - New interferes with old

Repression (Motivated forgetting)

In psychoanalytic theory, the process of pushing unwanted anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories away from conscious memory, preventing recall

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memory prior to onset of amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia

Loss of memory of events occurring after the onset of amnesia (ie- inability to form new memories; due to hippocampal damage)

Long-Term Potentiation

-Increase in synaptic strength
-Practice/reviewing/repetition strengthens synaptic connections to improve memory (less stimulation is required to release same amount of the neurotransmitter)

Structure of the Brain

1. Hippocampus (consolidation)
2. Thalamus
3. Prefrontal cortex
4. Amygdala
5. Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia
6. Association Cortex

Neurotransmitters

1. Acetylcholine
2. Glutamate

Infantile Amnesia

The inability of adults to remember episodic memories from before the age of three or four

Why?

-Hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature
-"We index much of our explicit memory with a command of language that young children do not possess"

Concepts

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

Schemas

Mental representations of categories, people, events, etc. Allows us to organize & interpret information.

Assimilation

Interpreting new information in terms of our existing schemas (adding new info to an existing schema... as is)

Accommodation

Changing/adapting our current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new information

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use; the inability to use objects in different ways

Fixation

Focusing on only one aspect of a problem; inability to see a problem from another perspective

Mental Set

Persistence in using problem- solving strategies that have worked in the past. This is a barrier when it prevents you from seeing other ways of solving a problem.

Algorithms

A methodical, step-by-step process for trying all possible solutions to a problem. (can be very time consuming; if a solution exists, you are guaranteed to find the solution)

Heuristics

a "rule of thumb" or "mental shortcut" used in problem solving or decision making. (much quicker, but may cause us to make errors or overlook the solution)

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut in decision making based on how readily (quickly) relevant instances come to mind (based on headlines, recent experiences, etc.)

Representative Heuristic

A mental shortcut where someone makes a decision based on how something fits their schema or prototype of a concept.

Overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs, judgments, abilities that may lead to poor decision making &/or decreased performance

Hindsight bias

The tendency, upon learning an outcome of an event to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen the outcome

Belief Perseverance

"clinging" to one's initial beliefs after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to only seek information, recall information, or interpret info in ways that is likely to support one's decisions and beliefs.

Gambler's Fallacy

The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently. (Random events will correct themselves)

Sunken-Cost Fallacy

Our tendency to continue with an endeavor we've invested money, effort, or time into—even if the current costs outweigh the benefits