Interim Study Guide Terms

Age of Anxiety / Age of Progress

A period in the early 20th century marked by social and political upheaval, technological advancements, and a sense of uncertainty and disillusionment.

Anti-Religion Campaign (Russia)

A state-sponsored campaign in the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1941 aimed at suppressing religious beliefs and institutions, including the destruction of religious buildings and persecution of believers.

Antisemitism

Prejudice, discrimination, or hostility towards Jewish people based on their ethnicity, religion, or culture.

The April Theses

A set of ten directives issued by Vladimir Lenin upon his return to Russia in April 1917, which laid out the Bolshevik Party's plan for revolution. They called for an end to the war, the redistribution of land to peasants, and the transfer of power to the soviets (workers' councils).

Armenian Genocide

Event during World War I where Ottoman Empire systematically killed over 1 million Armenians through deportation, forced labor, and mass killings.

Atlantic Revolutions

A series of political upheavals in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, including the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions. These movements were characterized by a desire for independence, liberty, and equality, and had a profound impact on the world.

The Balfour Agreement

Declaration issued by the British government in 1917, supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Simon Bolivar

South American revolutionary leader who played a key role in the independence of several Latin American countries from Spain in the early 19th century. He is known as the "Liberator" for his efforts to free Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from colonial rule.

The Berlin Conference

Event where European powers divided and colonized Africa in 1884-1885. Led to the exploitation of African resources and people, and contributed to the formation of modern African borders.

Cahiers (de doléance)

Definition: A list of grievances and complaints drawn up by each of the three estates of France (clergy, nobility, and commoners) before the meeting of the Estates-General in 1789.

Purpose: To express the needs and concerns of the French people and propose reforms to the government.

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Capitalism

Economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, profit-driven competition, and free market exchange of goods and services.

Collectivization

A policy in which individual farms and land were consolidated into large collective farms owned and managed by the state, often resulting in forced labor and crop failures. This policy was implemented in the Soviet Union and other communist states during the 20th century.

Communism

Economic and political ideology advocating for a classless society where property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.

Cult of Personality

A phenomenon where a leader is glorified and worshipped by their followers, often resulting in the leader having absolute power and control over their followers.

Cultural Revolution

A sociopolitical movement initiated by Mao Zedong in China from 1966 to 1976, aimed at purging capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society and promoting communist ideology. It involved mass mobilization of youth and intellectuals, leading to widespread violence, persecution, and destruction of cultural artifacts. Its legacy remains controversial, with some seeing it as a necessary step towards modernization and others as a catastrophic failure.

Disillusionment

Feeling of disappointment or frustration after realizing something is not as good or ideal as previously believed.

The Dreyfus Affair

A political scandal that occurred in France in the late 19th century. It involved the wrongful conviction and imprisonment of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army, for espionage. The case became a symbol of anti-Semitism and injustice, and divided French society.

Dulce et Decorum Est

A poem written by Wilfred Owen during World War I, describing the horrors of war and the false notion that it is sweet and honorable to die for one's country. The poem vividly portrays the physical and mental suffering of soldiers, and the devastating effects of gas attacks. Its title is a Latin phrase meaning "It is sweet and honorable", which was a popular slogan used to encourage young men to enlist in the army.

Enlightenment

Period in European history characterized by reason, science, and individualism. It emphasized the power of human reason to understand the world and improve society. Key figures include Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant.

(French) Estates

The three social classes of pre-revolutionary France: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners).

Fascism

A political ideology and system of government characterized by authoritarianism, extreme nationalism, and the suppression of political opposition and dissent.

Five Year Plans

A series of economic plans implemented by the Soviet government in the 1920s and 1930s to rapidly industrialize and modernize the Soviet economy.

The Four Olds

Traditional elements of Chinese culture that were targeted for elimination during the Cultural Revolution by Mao Zedong's Red Guards: old ideas, old customs, old habits, and old culture.

Ghettos

Segregated areas within a city where a particular ethnic, religious, or social group is forced to live, often as a result of discriminatory policies.

Globalization

The process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among people, businesses, and countries around the world, driven by advances in technology, communication, and transportation.

The Great Depression

A severe worldwide economic downturn that lasted from 1929 to the late 1930s, marked by mass unemployment, deflation, and widespread poverty and hardship.

The Great Leap Forward

A campaign launched by Mao Zedong in 1958 to rapidly transform China's economy and society through industrialization and collectivization, which led to widespread famine and economic collapse.

Gulag

The system of forced labor camps in the Soviet Union, where millions of political prisoners and others were imprisoned, exploited, and often died from inhumane conditions and treatment.

Guomindang

The Chinese Nationalist Party, led by Chiang Kai-shek, which governed China from 1927 until its defeat by the Chinese Communist Party in 1949.

Adolf Hitler

The leader of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, who oversaw the Holocaust and initiated World War II with his aggressive expansionist policies.

Thomas Hobbes

An English philosopher of the 17th century who is best known for his influential work "Leviathan," which argues that a strong, centralized state is necessary to maintain social order and prevent chaos.

The Holocaust

The genocide of six million Jews and millions of other minority groups by Nazi Germany during World War II.

Imperialism

The practice of extending a nation's power and influence over other countries or territories, often through colonization, military conquest, or economic domination.

Industrial Revolution

A period of rapid industrialization and technological advancement in Europe and North America in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by the development of new machinery and production methods, and the shift from manual to machine-based labor.

(Thomas) Jefferson

A founding father of the United States and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, who served as the third president of the United States and is known for his advocacy of democracy, liberty, and human rights.

Spheres of influence

a geopolitical concept referring to a region within which a dominant country has significant influence over others

State of Nature

a philosophical concept that refers to a hypothetical state of human existence before the formation of societies and governments

Joseph Stalin

the leader of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953, who implemented policies of rapid industrialization, collectivization, and political repression

Suez canal

a man-made waterway in Egypt that connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, allowing ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to circumnavigate Africa

Taiwan

an island country located in East Asia, also known as the Republic of China. Has a complex political status due to its disputed sovereignty and relationship with mainland China, which considers _______to be a renegade province.

Leon Trotsky

a Marxist revolutionary and theorist who played a key role in the Russian Revolution, but was later exiled and assassinated on Stalin's orders

The United Nations:

an international organization founded in 1945 to promote cooperation and peace among nations, with 193 member states

Mary Wollstonecraft

an English writer and philosopher who advocated for women's rights and education in the late 18th century

World War I

a global war fought from 1914 to 1918, primarily in Europe, that involved many of the world's major powers and resulted in the deaths of millions of people

The Treaty of Versailles imposed heavy penalties on Germany and contributed to the rise of fascism and the outbreak of World War II.

World War II

a global war fought from 1939 to 1945, involving many of the world's major powers and resulting in the deaths of tens of millions of people, including six million Jews in the Holocaust

The defeat of Nazi Germany and Japan marked the beginning of the Cold War and the emergence of the United States and Soviet Union as superpowers.

Zionism

a political movement that advocates for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in the land of Israel

The Balfour Declaration of 1917, which expressed British support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine,

Jewish Diaspora

The dispersion of Jewish people from their ancestral homeland in Israel, throughout different parts of the world.

League of Nations

An intergovernmental organization established after World War I, aimed at promoting international cooperation and preventing future conflicts.

Vladimir Lenin

A Russian communist revolutionary who led the Bolshevik party to power during the October Revolution of 1917, establishing the first socialist state in the world.

(Mao’s) Little Red Book

A collection of quotes and speeches by Mao Zedong, which became a central element of the Chinese Communist Party's propaganda efforts during the Cultural Revolution.

Laissez-faire

A policy that advocates for minimal government intervention in economic affairs, allowing free-market forces to determine prices, production, and distribution of goods and services.

Leopold II (of Belgium)

The King of Belgium from 1865 to 1909, who is known for his brutal colonial rule of the Congo Free State, which resulted in widespread human rights abuses and millions of deaths.

Liberalism

A political ideology that emphasizes individual freedom, equality, and limited government intervention in the economy.

(John) Locke

A 17th-century English philosopher who is considered one of the founding fathers of liberalism, known for his influential ideas on natural rights, social contract theory, and government by consent of the governed.

The Long March

A military retreat undertaken by the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party in 1934-35, covering over 6,000 miles across China, and cementing Mao Zedong's leadership over the party.

Mandates

Territories administered by the League of Nations or later by the United Nations, with the aim of promoting self-determination and eventual independence for the peoples living in those areas.

Mao Zedong

A Chinese communist revolutionary and founding father of the People's Republic of China, who led the Chinese Communist Party to victory against the Nationalist forces, and ruled China until his death in 1976.

Meiji Restoration

A period of Japanese history from 1868 to 1912, characterized by rapid modernization, westernization, and political reforms, which transformed Japan from a feudal society to a modern industrialized nation.

Mein Kampf

A book written by Adolf Hitler in 1925-26, which outlines his political ideology and vision for Germany, including his ideas on Aryan supremacy, anti-Semitism, and Lebensraum.

Montesquieu

A French Enlightenment philosopher who is known for his influential ideas on separation of powers, checks and balances, and the rule of law.

Napoleon

A French military and political leader who rose to power during the French Revolution, and went on to become the Emperor of France, extending French influence throughout Europe until his downfall in 1815.

Nationalism

A political ideology that emphasizes the importance of the nation-state and the cultural, linguistic, and historical ties that bind its people together.

Natural rights

Basic human rights that are inherent to all individuals, including life, liberty, and property, and which are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular society or government.

Tsar Nicolas II

The last emperor of Russia, who ruled from 1894 to 1917, and whose reign was marked by political turmoil, economic stagnation, and social unrest, ultimately leading to the Russian Revolution and his abdication.

“One China Policy”

The policy of the People's Republic of China, which regards Taiwan as a part of its territory, and seeks eventual reunification with the island.

Opium Wars

Two wars fought between China and Western powers (Britain and France) in the mid-19th century, over the issue of opium trade and access

Pogroms

Organized, state-sanctioned attacks against Jewish communities in Russia and Eastern Europe, typically involving violence, looting, and destruction of property.

The (Russian) Provisional Government

The government that replaced Tsar Nicholas II's regime following the February Revolution of 1917, but which was short-lived and gave way to the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution later that year.

Purges

A period of political repression and mass executions in the Soviet Union under Stalin's rule, aimed at eliminating perceived enemies of the state and consolidating his power.

Qing Dynasty

The last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912.

Quotas

Numerical limits imposed on immigration, often based on nationality or ethnicity.

Robespierre

A key figure in the French Revolution and the leader of the radical Jacobin faction, known for his extreme political views and role in the Reign of Terror.

The Red Guard/Red Army (Russia)

Paramilitary groups formed by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution and the subsequent Civil War.

Red Army (China)

The military forces of the Communist Party of China, founded by Mao Zedong in 1927.

Russian Civil War

A conflict fought between the Bolshevik Red Army and the anti-communist White Army, lasting from 1918 to 1922.

Russian Revolution (February)

A revolution in Russia in 1917 that resulted in the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of the Provisional Government.

Russian Revolution (October)

Also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, this was a second phase of the Russian Revolution in 1917 that resulted in the Bolshevik Party seizing power and establishing a socialist government.

Scramble for Africa

The period of rapid colonization of Africa by European powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Shell shock

A term used to describe the psychological effects of combat, especially in World War I.

Slaughter of Innocents

A term used to describe the massacre of civilians or non-combatants, often in a brutal and indiscriminate manner.

Adam Smith

A Scottish economist and philosopher who wrote "The Wealth of Nations," a seminal work on modern economics that introduced the concept of the "invisible hand" of the market.

Social contract / Consent of the governed

A theory that asserts that individuals consent to be governed in exchange for protection of their natural rights and the common good, and that governments derive their authority from the people they govern.

Socialism

An economic and political system in which the means of production and distribution are owned and controlled by the community as a whole.

Soviets (with a lower-case “s”)

Councils of workers and soldiers that emerged in Russia during the 1917 Revolution, which played a key role in the Bolsheviks' rise to power.