History A-level Edexcel - Russia 1917-91: from Lenin to Yeltsin - Theme 4:4c

The goals of education (1917)

- varying views

- education important

- Lenin believed high education level essential for building socialism as needed educated workforce to understand process of industrialisation

- Lunacharsky believed primary education goal was to allow individual students to floursih

The nature of education (1917)

- varying views

- traditionally education associated with wealthy

- debates on if educated people should be worked with, how to educate millions of illiterate workers and if short-term compromise necessary for long term gain

The expansion of compulsory education during the 1930s

- goal of universal education largely achieved, particularly in urban areas

- most schools failed to continue education beyond first two years of secondary education

- education extends to children of 'alien social elements'

- rural standard of teaching improved due to deportations from Great Terror

The expansion of compulsory education under Lenacharsky

- 1917 - control of education given to commissariat of Education (Narkompros) headed by Lunachevsky

- Oct 1918 - established unified labour schools to provide free education to all children 8-17, banned religious instruction in schools, introduced co-ed schools, abolished corporal punishment/homework/exams, promised free breakfast and medical examinations, took over church schools, education made compulsory

- aim of universal compulsory education didn't materialise due to lack of resources

The expansion of compulsory education from 1934

- academic schools with 4 years primary education and 3 years of incomplete secondary education, could then stay for 2/3 more years of complete secondary education/ transfer to vocational programme/ leave for work

The expansion of compulsory education in 1980s

- many academic schools turned into specialist schools e.g. mathematics, science and foreign languages

- specialist schools open to boys+girls

- children of graduates likely to gain places

Obstacles to expansion of secondary education

- main was lack of resources

- traditional attitudes

- cultural influences

- government policy in other areas

- soviet elite

Obstacles to expansion of secondary education - lack of resources

- in 1920s, civil war and in NEP school state spending declined

- many schools closed in winter as lacked heating

- low wages and status discouraged teachers

- school transport underfunded

- tuition fees introduced in 1940-56 for secondary

- individual equipment had to be payed for

- WW2 impacted as teachers killed in actions and schools destroyed

- 5th FYP implemented 10 years compulsory education but over-optimistic and 8 year programme instead

Obstacles to expansion of secondary education - traditional attitudes

- under Lunacharsky, teachers continued to use traditional methods as no reliable teacher training

- rural school attendance problematic, especially at harvest --> Khrushchev introduced programme of affirmative action but failed

Obstacles to expansion of secondary education - cultural influences

- state education viewed by many as vehicle for russification (all students had to learn Russian)

- muslim areas - women teachers disrespected, limited no. muslim women entered higher secondary education

Obstacles to expansion of secondary education - government policy in other areas

- collectivisation removed many teachers from village schools (many labelled kulaks)

- cultural revolution (1931-32) - many teachers removed

Obstacles to expansion of secondary education - soviet elite

- academic route dominated by children of soviet elite

Adult education

- short courses teaching adults basic literacy and numeracy, evening classes offered (rabfak)

- Khrushchev former rabfak student

- by 1970s, extensive adult education programme, diplomas + degrees offered

Expansion of higher education

- after 1917 - Narkompros laid courses to prepare those without formal education for uni

- communist rector appointed for each institution

- 2 main branches: university delivering academic+ theoretical courses and specialist institutes

- 1929 - entry requirements dropped and quota system introduced to reach out to working class but failed (abolished in 1935)

Expansion of higher education (1953-85)

- under Khrushchev, technical subject institutions expanded

- free tuition + grants for students' living costs helped programme but grants low

Reduction of illiteracy

- 1919 Decree on Illiteracy launched to bring about 'liquidation of illiteracy' - aimed to make all 8-50 literate

Methods to reduce illiteracy

- 'liquidation points' set up to undertake basic literacy courses

- remedial schools for illiterate workers

- all soldiers in red army had to attend literacy classes

- Literacy League established with magazine ('Down with Illiteracy!)

- emphasis on women, courses provided by Zhenotel

- under Stalin, Komosol volunteers to educate workers and peasants

Problems with reducing illiteracy

- majority of teachers in 1917 didn't support regime

- military victory and economic survival prioritised over education

- many schools requisitioned by army and turned into stores/barracks

- war economy didn't produce educational products

- war disrupted education generally

- under NEP, reading rooms closed to save money

Purpose of state-controlled curriculum

- instil socialist values in population (propaganda for young children) to ensure continued existence of communism

- vehicle to attack traditional beliefs - reduce hold of religion, attack patriarchal values

- method of Russification - unity

- provide technical skills and expertise for modern economy

Early methods of education - Lenin

- emphasised discovery, play and group work

- themes e.g. nature studied

- tests abolished

- corporal punishment forbidden

- classrooms renamed 'laboratories of learning'

- teachers' authority declined

Stalin's 'Great Retreat' 1936

- based on Pedagogical Poem (1933-36)- stressed traditional discipline

- textbooks prescribed by government

- traditional subjects and formal examinations were reintroduced

- teachers authority returned

- teaching methods based on lectures

- compulsory pigtails for schoolgirls were required

- all students studied same curriculum

- information had to be memorised

- each class had representative to inform teachers of class misbehaviour

Content of curriculum - Stalin

- Russian literature

- attention placed on maths and science ( affected by Lysenko's ideas)

- Stalin's personal intervention before standard history book could be agreed

- all students required to learn Russian and this was vital for promotion

- no difference between boys and girls except WW2

Content of curriculum - Khrushchev

- history exams cancelled in 1956 in light of Khrushchev's revelation about Stalin- policy led to a hurried rewriting of history accusing of economic mistakes and errors

- emphasis given to technical and vocational education increased with Khrushchev's educational reforms of 1958 - schools required to provide vocational training/ allow students to transfer to colleges that offered such provision

- Marxist-Leninist Theory study compulsory at all levels of education

Change in education (1953-85) - Khrushchev

- Khrushchev's reforms (1958-59) - expand higher education for children of workers, placed emphasis on technical+ vocational education

- Stalinist discipline relaxed in Nov 1960

- 1961 - ordered new emphasis on foreign language reflecting rejection of Stalin's cultural isolation

- homework requirement dropped

- final exams replaced by continuous assessment

- in June 1962, teachers lost right to expel underachieving students

Khrushchev's Education Law (Dec 1959)

- education compulsory for children aged 7-15

- schools had to offer 11-year programme

- restructured 16-19 yr olds education so that most would complete with in school education and vocational training

- academic students given places at special schools

- 'fundamentals of political knowledge' course for all 15 years to ensure they knew benefit of soviet system

The impact of Khrushchev's educational reforms

- unpopular as most parents wanted students to get academic education

- failure as never fully implemented

- discipline slackening ignored by teachers

- most successful aspect was improved education for academic elite

- didn't address fundamental problems such as poorly maintained/built schools and rural teacher shortage

Change in education (1953-85) - Brezhnev

- main aim was to drop Khrushchev's controversial changes

- 11-year schooling policy ended

- temporary curriculum restoring focus on academic education

- ended vocational training for 16-19

- abandoned compulsory secondary education

- school statute (sep 1970) required textbooks to be updated with latest scientific knowledge

- free meals to poor students

- in 1970s, textbooks made free

- curriculum unchanged

- academic rote remained preferred

Youth groups and informal education

- Octobrists (ages 5-9) - nursery rhymes+games

- Pioneers ( ages 10-14) - initiation ceremony, members had to promise to love country and Lenin's teachings, uniform, provided beyond education opportunities

- Komosol (14-28) - essential for progress in communist party, members used in FYPs, cultural revolution, community schemes

How significant was Soviet educational policy for the population of the USSR in the years 1917-85? - 2021 question

Significant:

- established compulsory education system by 1930s

- eradicated illiteracy

- part-time adult education

- expansion of higher education

Non-significant:

- lack of resources hindered Lunacharsky's 1917 initiative

- traditional attitudes disadvantaged rural and muslim females

- academic secondary education dominated by managerial elite

- other things more significant: full employment (provided job security), min wage in 1956, real wage increases, housing expansion, provision of social benefits+healthcare