1Final exam 2085 Review.docx

Sodium-potassium exchange pump

Sodium-potassium exchange pump

Moves sodium and potassium ions against large concentration gradients, pumping two potassium ions into the cell and three sodium ions out.

Threshold stimulus

The smallest amount of stimulation needed to initiate a response.

Action potential

A sequence of changes that alters and restores the resting membrane potential.

Tactile discs

Material that challenges touch sense and verbal description abilities.

Tactile corpuscles

Structures in the skin detecting light touch.

Meissner corpuscle

Touch-sensitive nerve endings detecting light touch and texture changes.

Ruffini corpuscles

Mechanoreceptors responding to stretch and movement.

Smooth muscle

Moves substances in various tracts, with unique cellular characteristics.

Cardiac muscle

Found in the heart, responsible for pumping blood and maintaining blood pressure.

Skeletal muscle

Associated with the skeleton, producing movement and supporting organs.

Skeletal muscle structure

Epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium layers surrounding muscle fibers.

Muscle contraction events

Series of steps from ACh release to muscle relaxation.

Increase in oxygen consumption

Due to physical activity, fever, stress, illness, cold temperatures, hyperthyroidism.

Rigor mortis

Fixed muscular contraction after death due to ATP depletion.

Muscles near sacral region

Piriformis, Coccygeus, Gluteus maximus, Multifidus lumborum, erector spinae.

Muscles near cervical region

Sternocleidomastoid, Scalene Muscles, Trapezius, Levator Scapulae, Longus Colli, Longus Capitis.

Resting muscle ATP generation

Primarily through aerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration

Main energy source for cardiac and smooth muscle tissue.

Anaerobic respiration

Breakdown of sugars to generate energy without oxygen.

Aerobic exercise effects

Heart pumps oxygenated blood to working muscles for extended performance.

Anaerobic glycolysis

Breakdown of glucose to lactic acid without oxygen.

Nervous system functions

Guides activities, from automatic to complex processes.

Spinal nerves

Transmit signals between brain, spinal cord, and body.

Central nervous system

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Includes nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.

Perineurium

Connective tissue layer surrounding nerve fascicles in the PNS.

Efferent division

Carries motor commands from CNS to PNS muscles and glands.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary and reflex skeletal muscle contractions.

Afferent system function

Transmits sensory information to the CNS.

Ulnar nerve location

Starts at the brachial plexus, connects to C8 and T1 vertebrae, runs down the upper arm.

Filum terminale

Nonfunctional continuation of the spinal cord end.

White matter of spinal cord

Composed of myelinated axonal tracts.

Dorsal ramus

Carries nerve axons for deep muscles and skin of the trunk.

Somatic motor nuclei location

Upper part of the midbrain at the level of the superior colliculus.

Dorsal root ganglia content

Mainly synapses.

Neuroglia functions

Provide support, protection, and defense to nervous tissue.

PNS glial cells

Schwann cells, satellite cells, enteric glia.

CNS glial cells

Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia.

Astrocytes functions

Create framework, maintain blood-brain barrier, regulate interstitial environment, guide neuron development.

Schwann cells functions

Form myelin sheath around axons in the PNS.

Satellite cells

Surround neurons in ganglia.

Structural classification of neurons

Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar.

Postsynaptic neuron

Receives neurotransmitter signals from a presynaptic neuron.

Presynaptic neuron

Releases neurotransmitter at a synapse for communication.

Cholinergic synapse transmission steps

Action potential, calcium entry, neurotransmitter release, depolarization, acetylcholine breakdown.

Neuron action potential generation

Depends on depolarization to threshold ion balance.

Action potential generation steps

Depolarization, Na+ channels activation, K+ channels activation, return to resting potential.

Sodium channels opening in axon membrane

Causes depolarization.

Neuron repolarization

Potassium channels allow potassium out of the cell.

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Preganglionic Neurons

Neurons of the autonomic nervous system located in the visceral efferent (lateral gray) column of the spinal cord.

Ganglionic Neurons

Part of the autonomic nervous system located in ganglia outside the central nervous system, relaying information from preganglionic neurons to target organs.

Preganglionic Fibers

Fibers that synapse inside the sympathetic ganglia when leaving the central nervous system.

Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons

Short, myelinated neurons extending from the thoracic and superior lumbar segments of the spinal cord, with cell bodies in the lateral horns between T1 and L2.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for rest and digestion responses, decreasing respiration and heart rate while increasing digestion.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Dilates blood vessels, increases blood pressure, contracts muscles, and regulates various bodily functions.

Dual Innervation

Organ instruction from both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Thoracolumbar Division

Sympathetic part of the autonomic division originating in the intermediolateral cell column of the spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System and Pupil Contraction

Controls pupil contraction through its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

General Senses

Include pain, temperature, touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception.

Proprioceptors

Monitor joint and muscle positions, a type of somatic sensation.

Chemoreceptors

Respond to dissolved substances in body fluids, monitoring pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen levels.

Baroreceptors

Respond to pressure changes in distensible organs like blood vessels.

Thermoreceptors

Temperature receptors located in various body parts, conducting sensations of heat and cold.

Sensory Stimuli

Include visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile sensations.

Sensory Input Blockage

Factors like physical barriers, nerve damage, disorders, and environmental conditions can block sensory input.

Muscarinic Receptors

Found in the parasympathetic and some sympathetic systems, causing indirect responses via enzyme activation.

Nicotinic Receptors

Found in somatic motor and autonomic ganglion cells, leading to excitation upon activation.

Olfactory Bulb

Brain structure processing smell information and sending signals for perception and memory.

Taste Receptors

Primarily located on the tongue and play a role in detecting different tastes.

Iris Function

Controls pupil size and regulates light entering the eye.

Lens Function

Focuses light by changing shape through accommodation for clear vision at different distances.

Tears Function

Collect in the lacrimal lake, pass through ducts, and help maintain eye health.

Vascular Tunic Function

Provides blood supply, regulates light, maintains eye temperature, and secretes aqueous humor.

Aqueous Humor Production

Produced by the ciliary body in the eye.

Fibrous Tunic

Provides eye support, consists of the cornea and sclera.

Ciliary Body Functions

Attaches to the iris, changes lens curvature, and secretes aqueous humor.

Tympanic Membrane Function

Separates the external ear from the middle ear.

Inner Ear Function

Converts sound into nerve impulses.

Saccule and Utricle Function

Responsible for position and linear movement sensations.

Endolymph

Responds to rotational head movements in the semicircular canals.

Otoliths Function

Calcium crystals aiding in gravity and linear acceleration detection.

Outer Ear Function

Collects and channels sound waves to the tympanic membrane.

Auditory Tube Function

Connects the middle ear to the pharynx, equalizing air pressure and draining mucus.

Brain Protection

Supported by the cranium, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.

Meninges

Three layers surrounding the brain, protecting it from trauma.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Fluid surrounding the CNS, exchanging with brain interstitial fluid.

Thalamus Function

Sensory relay center for all sensory information except olfaction.

Medulla Oblongata Regulation

Regulates autonomic and respiratory functions.

Hypothalamus

Controls autonomic functions and skeletal muscle.

Cerebral Aqueduct Function

Allows cerebrospinal fluid flow between ventricles.

Sensory Areas in Cerebrum

Primary areas for vision, hearing, smell, and taste processing.

Vestibulocochlear Nerve Function

Carries balance and equilibrium sensory information.

Cranial