Psc 157 final

Who first proposed the Contact Hypothesis in 1954?

Gordon Allport

According to the Contact Hypothesis, how does social contact between majority and minority group members affect prejudice?

It reduces prejudice.

Which condition of effective contact involves groups working together toward a shared objective?

Interdependence or a common goal.

Why is 'equal status' considered a necessary condition for effective intergroup contact?

It ensures individuals interact without power imbalances that reinforce stereotypes.

What type of contact, often found among friends, is more effective at reducing prejudice than formal contact?

Informal, interpersonal contact.

How does the endorsement of integration by authorities influence the effectiveness of intergroup contact?

It provides a supportive normative climate that encourages positive interactions.

What was the core finding of the meta-analysis by Pettigrew and Tropp involving over 200 studies?

Contact consistently reduces prejudice.

In the Pettigrew and Tropp meta-analysis, what was the correlation coefficient ($r$) for the relationship between contact and prejudice?

$r = .27$

How does the effect size of intergroup contact ($r = .27$) compare to other psychological outcomes?

It is roughly the same size as the correlation between psychotherapy and recovery.

How does intergroup contact typically affect the level of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)?

It lowers SDO.

Define 'de-provincialization' as a result of intergroup contact.

The realization that different people do things in different, valid ways.

How does intergroup contact influence problem-solving and cognitive processing?

It improves problem-solving by reducing the use of heuristics and increasing creativity.

Why might intergroup contact be less effective for individuals who already have low levels of prejudice?

There is less room for improvement due to a floor effect in their preexisting attitudes.

How does intergroup anxiety act as a limiting factor for contact?

High anxiety leads individuals to avoid contact with outgroup members entirely.

What is the primary cause of intergroup anxiety?

Expectations that the interaction will result in negative consequences.

Identify the two main reasons negative expectations for intergroup interactions exist.

Little previous contact with the outgroup or past negative experiences with them.

Why is the relationship between intergroup anxiety and prejudice considered 'self-reinforcing'?

Avoidance prevents positive contacts that could undermine negative stereotypes and expectations.

What specific anxiety do majority group members often experience during interracial interactions?

The fear of appearing biased or being stereotyped as biased.

According to research by Devine, how much more likely are high-anxiety subjects to 'no-show' for interracial interactions?

Three times more likely.

What cognitive effect does interracial interaction have on high-anxiety majority members as measured by the Stroop task?

It reduces subsequent self-control.

In terms of motivation, how do 'approach positive' goals differ from 'avoid negative' goals in intergroup contact?

Approach goals focus on internal desires to interact, while avoid goals focus on external pressures to not seem biased.

How do minority group members generally compare to majority group members regarding coping mechanisms for interracial interactions?

Minority group members seem to have better coping mechanisms.

Define the 'Extended Contact Effect' (Wright).

Knowledge that an ingroup member is friends with an outgroup member reduces prejudice.

According to the Extended Contact Effect, what is the relationship between the number of known ingroup-outgroup friends and prejudice?

A greater number of known friendships is associated with lower prejudice.

How does 'Imagined Contact' (Crisp) affect intergroup attitudes?

Mentally simulating a positive interaction reduces prejudice, stereotyping, and intergroup anxiety.

What theoretical framework do the models of the contact process (e.g., De-categorization) draw upon?

Social Identity Theory.

What is the primary goal of the 'De-Categorization' model of contact?

To avoid using social category information and focus on individual similarities.

The 'Color-blind perspective' is most closely associated with which model of the contact process?

De-Categorization.

What is a major pro of the Multiculturalist perspective compared to the Color-blind perspective?

It reduces prejudice more effectively and increases well-being for under-represented groups.

What is a significant drawback of the Color-blind perspective for minority group members?

It leads to a reduced sense of belonging and well-being because important identities are unacknowledged.

In the 'Salient Categorization' model, what condition must be met for positive attitudes toward an individual to generalize to the group?

The individual must be seen as typical of their group while still disconfirming stereotypes.

Define the 'Multiculturalist perspective' in the context of intergroup relations.

The view that ethnic identities are fundamental and relations are optimized when people retain cultural identity while developing commonalities.

What is the primary mechanism of the 'Common Ingroup Identity' model?

Inducing ingroup and outgroup members to recategorize themselves into a single, shared identity.

What is the 'prototypicality' drawback in the Common Ingroup Identity model?

Ingroup members may define the common identity based on their own group, viewing outgroups as less representative of that identity.

How did German unification affect attitudes toward common outgroups like the British and French, according to Mummend?

It led to increased bias against those common outgroups.

What does the 'Personalization' model propose to reduce prejudice?

Seeing outgroup members as individuals with complex social identities rather than just category members.

In stereotype change, define the 'Bookkeeping' cognitive factor.

A gradual change occurring as many different targets slightly disconfirm the stereotype.

In stereotype change, define the 'Conversion' cognitive factor.

A rapid change occurring after exposure to a few extreme disconfirming examples.

What is the primary function of 'Subtyping' in the short term?

It protects the broad stereotype by treating counterstereotypic individuals as exceptions.

According to Weber & Crocker, when is a stereotype most likely to change?

When counterstereotypic information is dispersed across many members rather than concentrated in one.

Why are extremely counterstereotypic individuals often less effective at changing group stereotypes than moderately counterstereotypic individuals?

They are more easily dismissed as 'extreme deviants' or exceptions to the rule.

In the Kunda & Oleson study, how did neutral information (like firm size) affect the generalization from a deviant lawyer to the group?

Neutral information provided grounds for subtyping, which blocked generalization.

According to Rothbart & Lewis, how does the 'typicality' of a target frat member affect generalization?

Generalization occurs if the target is typical; if atypical, their behavior is explained away by their uniqueness.

How does subtyping lead to stereotype change in the long term?

It increases the perceived variability of the group and decreases the perceived utility of the broad macro-stereotype.

What is the relationship between 'Micro-stereotypes' and 'Macro-stereotypes' in the process of subtyping?

The formation of narrow micro-stereotypes diminishes the use of the broader macro-stereotype.

How does intergroup contact affect expectations of negative outcomes in interactions?

It reduces those negative expectations.

What happens to the level of intergroup anxiety when individuals engage in imagined contact?

Intergroup anxiety is reduced.

Identify a potential negative side effect of the Multicultural perspective on an Implicit Association Test (IAT).

It may increase stereotyping or race essentialism.

In the context of stereotype change, what does it mean to 'subtype extreme deviants'?

To create a mental subcategory for individuals who vary wildly from the stereotype so the main stereotype remains intact.

How does intergroup contact affect empathy for the outgroup?

It increases empathy.

What is egalitarianism?

An emphasis on the principles of equal opportunity, equal treatment for all, and concern for others' wellbeing.

How does egalitarianism primarily affect the activation of negative stereotypes?

It inhibits prejudice by preventing the activation of negative stereotypes in the first place.

What is the primary source of Internal Motivation to control prejudice?

Personal values, where being nonprejudiced is central to one's self-concept.

What is the primary source of External Motivation to control prejudice?

Social pressure, where one attempts to appear nonprejudiced to avoid disapproval from others.

True or False: Internal and External motivations to control prejudice are dependent on one another.

False, they are independent; an individual can be high or low on one, both, or neither.

Which combination of Internal and External motivation typically results in the least amount of bias?

High Internal Motivation and Low External Motivation.

What are two developmental factors that contribute to the motivation to control prejudice?

Parental emphasis on egalitarian values and positive contact with outgroup members.

According to Monteith, what is the first step in the process of 'Discrepancy Reduction'?

Noticing a discrepancy between one's personal beliefs and their actual behavior.

In Monteith's model, what emotional state triggers an inward focus to look for the causes of biased behavior?

Feeling 'lousy' or guilty after noticing a discrepancy in behavior.

What is the process of developing accessible thoughts like 'all people are the same' to replace stereotypes known as?

Automatic inhibition.

How do Low Prejudice subjects respond to feedback that they discriminated against a gay law school applicant?

They spend more time reading about prejudice and remember more information about the topic.

In Monteith's research, how did feedback about personal discrimination affect Low Prejudice subjects' reactions to gay jokes?

They found the jokes to be significantly less funny.

How does discrimination feedback typically affect High Prejudice subjects' subsequent behavior?

Discrimination feedback generally does not matter to them or change their behavior.

The ability to overcome bias on implicit measures is often compared to which task in cognitive psychology?

Stroop.

If a person has a moderate bias but very weak self-regulation, how will their implicit measure score likely appear?

It will show a strong bias because the lack of regulation fails to mask the association.

In the Quad Model of implicit bias, what does the parameter 'AC' represent?

Association Activation (the degree to which an automatic association is triggered).

In the Quad Model of implicit bias, what does the parameter 'D' represent?

Detection (the ability to detect that a biased response is being triggered).

In the Quad Model of implicit bias, what does the parameter 'OB' represent?

Overcoming Bias (the ability to regulate or override the activated association).

In the Quad Model of implicit bias, what does the parameter 'G' represent?

Guessing (the response strategy used when no association is activated and detection fails).

How does exposure to positive Black and negative White exemplars affect Quad Model parameters?

It only influences the Association Activation (AC) parameter.

High Internal/Low External motivated individuals show higher levels of which Quad Model parameter compared to others?

Detection (D), suggesting they are better at knowing when regulation is required.

What was the result of Kawakami's training where participants negated stereotypic pairings?

It resulted in decreased implicit bias by decreasing AC and increasing D.

How does a high dose of alcohol specifically affect the Quad Model parameters of bias?

It lowers the Overcoming Bias (OB) parameter without affecting other parameters.

Research by Nosek et al. found a strong correlation between what and increased IAT bias?

Aging.

When modeling aging and implicit bias, which parameter shows a sharp decline as people get older?

Overcoming Bias (OB), reflecting deficits in self-regulatory ability.

How do 'incongruent pictures' in a study context affect implicit bias measures?

They reduce bias by reducing the OB parameter specifically.

Dovidio argues that greater implicit bias leads to worse interactions because the bias what?

Leaks through and is picked up by the interaction partner.

According to Richeson, why might people with greater implicit bias sometimes have better interactions?

They work harder to overcome the bias, and this effort is appreciated by partners.

In studies of interaction with Muslim confederates, what combination of parameters led to the highest liking by the confederate?

Low Association Activation (AC) and High Overcoming Bias (OB).

What is the 'Irony of Thought Suppression' described by Wegner?

To suppress a thought, you must hold it in mind, which ironically primes the unwanted thought.

In Macrae's skinhead study, what was the behavior of 'suppressors' when meeting a second target?

They wrote more stereotypical stories, demonstrating a rebound effect.

How did stereotype suppression affect physical behavior in Macrae's study?

Suppressors sat farther away from a chair supposedly belonging to a skinhead.

What effect does a mirror (increasing self-awareness) have on stereotyping over time?

It causes less stereotyping initially, but leads to a rebound effect later.

Under conditions of stereotype suppression, what type of behaviors are people more likely to remember?

Stereotypic behaviors (rather than non-stereotypic ones).

How do High Prejudice participants typically explain 'consistent' stereotypical behaviors?

Through Internal attributions (e.g., personality traits).

How do High Prejudice participants typically explain 'inconsistent' counter-stereotypical behaviors?

Through External attributions (e.g., situational context).

What is perspective taking?

Imagining the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of others to reduce bias.

How does perspective taking reduce bias in terms of categorization?

It increases 'self-target overlap' and creates a superordinate categorization.

What impact does perspective taking have on the attribution of behaviors?

It results in less biased attributions for both stereotypic and counter-stereotypic behaviors.

According to the notes, what is the role of practice in the process of controlling stereotypes?

Practice makes the process more efficient and eventually leads to automatic inhibition.

What is the core question regarding different demographic groups in the same classroom?

Whether they experience the classroom differently enough to affect their performance and achievement.

How do dropout rates for Black and Latino college students compare to those of White students?

Black and Latino students are roughly twice as likely to drop out.

What happens to achievement disparities between groups as the level of preparation or ability increases?

The disparities actually tend to increase.

What is stereotype threat?

The anxiety or burden felt when one realizes a negative stereotype exists about their group and fears confirming it.

Does experiencing stereotype threat require the individual to believe the stereotype is true?

No, it only requires the realization that others might apply the stereotype to them.

According to Stereotype Threat Theory, what must a student be identified with to sustain school success?

The student must see academic achievement as an important part of their self-image.

What are the two primary barriers to academic identification mentioned in the source?

Socio-structural variables and stereotype threat.

In Steele's math experiment, how did matched males and females perform on a 'hard' GRE math test initially?

Male students performed significantly better than female students.

What was the effect of telling participants the GRE math test was 'unbiased'?

The gender performance gap was eliminated, and both genders scored well.

In Steele's verbal test experiment, how did Black students perform in the 'Diagnostic' condition compared to White students?

Black students performed significantly worse than White students.