Animal Anatomy and Physiology - Video Lecture Notes Review

A comprehensive set of review questions and answers covering cell biology, tissues, organ systems, physiology, and anatomy from the lecture notes.

What are the two sciences that anatomy and physiology study respectively?

Anatomy studies the structure of the body and the relation of its parts; physiology studies how the body functions.

Define prokaryote.

A cell that lacks a true membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; all bacteria are prokaryotes.

Define eukaryote.

A cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and contains membrane-bound organelles; all multicellular organisms are composed of eukaryotic cells.

What are the three major parts of eukaryotic cells?

Cell membrane (plasma membrane), cytoplasm, and nucleus.

Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane.

A double phospholipid layer with interspersed proteins; semipermeable; contains carbohydrate chains and cholesterol; surface modifications include cilia, flagellum, and microvilli.

What are ribosomes and their role?

Ribosomes are protein-RNA complexes that synthesize proteins; may float freely or be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

What is the mitochondrion and its role in energy production?

The powerhouse of the cell; contains mitochondrial DNA; cristae increase surface area for ATP production via cellular respiration.

What is the endoplasmic reticulum and the difference between rough and smooth ER?

ER is a network of membranous channels; rough ER has ribosomes and transports proteins; smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and other functions.

What is the Golgi complex and its role?

Stacked membranes that modify, package, and distribute substances from the ER; also produces lysosomes.

What are lysosomes?

Digestive enzymes that digest intracellular bacteria and nonfunctional organelles; autolysis can occur if lysosome enzymes leak into cytoplasm.

What are peroxisomes and their function?

Membrane-bound organelles with oxidases and catalase that detoxify substances and convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide (then water).

What is the cytoskeleton and its function?

Network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that provides form, structure, support; anchors organelles and enables movement.

What are centrioles?

Microtubule-based structures that organize the mitotic spindle and form the base of cilia and flagella.

What is the nucleus and what does it contain?

Control center of the cell; contains DNA; has a double semipermeable membrane; contains nucleoli that manufacture ribosomal subunits.

What is the meaning of intracellular and extracellular?

Intracellular: inside a cell; extracellular: outside a cell.

Define diffusion.

Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration; passive process.

Define osmosis and osmotic pressure.

Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from low solute concentration (high solvent) to high solute concentration (low solvent); osmotic pressure is the pressure needed to stop water movement.

Describe filtration in cellular movement.

Substances are forced through a membrane by hydrostatic pressure; small solutes pass; important in kidney function.

Name and describe the endocytosis types.

Endocytosis is active uptake of material: phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking), and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

What is exocytosis?

Expulsion of materials from a cell; wastes or secreted products released into the extracellular space.

What is active transport and give an example?

Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient with carrier proteins; sodium-potassium pump is a key example.

Differentiate hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions.

Hypotonic: extracellular fluid less concentrated than intracellular; cells may swell. Hypertonic: extracellular fluid more concentrated; cells shrink. Isotonic: equal concentrations; no net water movement.

How many primary tissue types are there and what are they?

Four primary types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.

What is epithelial tissue and its main functions?

Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands; functions include protection, secretion, excretion, filtration, absorption, and sensory reception.

Give examples of simple and stratified squamous epithelium locations.

Simple squamous lines blood vessels and alveoli; stratified squamous lines mouth, esophagus, vagina, and rectum.

Describe cuboidal epithelium and its roles.

Cube-shaped cells; simple cuboidal lines glands and kidney tubules; stratified cuboidal lines some ducts.

Describe columnar epithelium and goblet cells.

Tall cells; simple columnar lines digestive tract for absorption/secretion and often has microvilli and goblet cells; ciliated columnar lines bronchi and uterus.

What is pseudostratified columnar epithelium?

Appears multi-layered but all cells touch the basal membrane; often ciliated with goblet cells in the respiratory tract.

What is transitional epithelium and where is it found?

Epithelium that can resemble cuboidal or squamous; found in urinary bladder and ureters to accommodate distention.

What is glandular epithelium and its two main types?

Specialized epithelial cells that secrete products; endocrine glands secrete into bloodstream; exocrine glands secrete onto surfaces via ducts.

What are connective tissue elements?

Cells, fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular), and matrix (ground substance); functions include support, protection, insulation, transport, and storage.

Name the three main connective tissue fiber types.

Collagen (white), elastic (yellow), and reticular fibers.

What are the suffixes used for connective tissue cells and their meanings?

-blast (immature/active), -cyte (mature), -clast (cell that breaks down substances).

How are connective tissues categorized?

Connective tissue proper and specialized connective tissue with various subtypes.

What are the three muscle tissue types?

Skeletal (striated, voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (involuntary, in the heart).

What is the functional unit of skeletal muscle and its components?

Sarcomere; includes Z line, M line, A band, I band, and H zone.

Describe intercalated discs in cardiac muscle.

Special connections that coordinate contraction by allowing rapid electrical spread between cardiac muscle cells.

Explain the sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction.

Contraction occurs as actin and myosin interact; calcium releases triggers exposure of binding sites; ATP drives cross-bridge cycling; sarcomere shortens.

List the three major nervous system cells.

Neurons (conduct impulses) and neuroglial (glial) cells (supportive, do not conduct impulses).

What are the three meninges and their locations?

Dura mater (outer), arachnoid mater (middle), pia mater (inner).

What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and its role?

Clear fluid that cushions and nourishes the brain; located in subarachnoid space and sampled via lumbar puncture.

What is the blood-brain barrier?

Tight junctions between brain capillary endothelial cells form a barrier; lipid-soluble substances diffuse readily; glucose and amino acids use transport mechanisms.

What are the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

Afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor); subdivides into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary).

What is saltatory conduction?

Propagation of nerve impulses by jumping between nodes of Ranvier on myelinated fibers, increasing speed.

Name the six types of glial cells and where they are located.

CNS: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells; PNS: Schwann cells, satellite cells.

What are reflexes and how do they work?

Automatic responses to stimuli; involve a reflex arc with a sensory receptor, spinal cord interneuron or direct motor neuron, and an effector organ.

What are the basic functions of the cardiovascular system?

Heart provides the force to circulate blood; myocardium forms the heart muscle and conduction via intercalated discs coordinates contraction.

What is the pericardium and its layers?

Double-walled sac with fibrous pericardium (outer) and serous pericardium (parietal and visceral); pericardial fluid in the cavity reduces friction.

What are the primary heart sounds and their origins?

Lubb (first sound) from AV valves closing; Dupp (second sound) from semilunar valves closing.

Describe the basic anatomy of the respiratory system as listed.

Nostrils; nasal cavity with turbinates; pharynx; larynx; trachea with C-shaped rings; bronchi; bronchioles; lungs with alveoli.

Differentiate ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration.

Ventilation is air movement in/out of the lungs; external respiration is gas exchange between alveoli and blood; internal respiration is gas exchange between blood and tissues.

Name the major regions and functions of the digestive system.

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum); accessory organs include liver, pancreas, gallbladder; digestion, absorption, and waste elimination.

What are the four compartments of the ruminant stomach?

Rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.

What are the four regions of the monogastric stomach and their roles?

Esophageal, cardiac, fundic, pyloric regions; fundic region contains true gastric glands with mucous neck, chief, parietal, and endocrine (gastrin) cells.

What enzymes do the pancreas and small intestine produce?

Pancreas: pancreatic amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, lipase, nucleases; small intestine: maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidases, nucleases.

What is the role of bile and which organ stores it?

Bile emulsifies fats; stored in the gallbladder (rats and horses lack a gallbladder in some species).

Name the primary components of the lymphatic system.

Lymph vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, thymus; functions include returning protein-containing fluid to the venous system, fat transport, and immune development.

What are the major components of the eye’s uvea and retina?

Iris, ciliary body, choroid (uvea); retina contains rods and cones; lens focuses light; aqueous and vitreous humor provide optics and nutrition.

What structures make up the ear’s three regions and their roles?

Outer ear (pinna to tympanic membrane), middle ear (ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes), inner ear (cochlea and semicircular canals for hearing and balance).

What are gustatory papillae and their roles?

Fungiform, foliate, and vallate papillae contain taste buds; fungiform on the tongue surface; vallate arranged in a circular pattern around the tongue; horses have some unique glands.

What is the difference between oxytocin and prolactin in reproduction and lactation?

Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection; prolactin promotes milk production.

What are common estrous cycle types in animals?

Monoestrous (one cycle per year, seasonal breeders); diestrous (spring/fall, e.g., dogs); polyestrous (multiple cycles per year); seasonally polyestrous; reflex/induced ovulators (e.g., cats, rabbits); spontaneous ovulators (e.g., dogs, cattle, horses).

What are the major components of a long bone?

Diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), articular cartilage, periosteum, endosteum, medullary cavity, and epiphyseal growth plate (growth plate, becomes epiphyseal line in adults).

What are the three primary bone cell types and their roles?

Osteoblasts (bone-forming), osteocytes (mature bone cells in lacunae), osteoclasts (bone-resorbing; involved in osteolysis and remodeling).

What is osteogenesis and its two main pathways?

Ossification; endochondral (bone forms from cartilage; majority of bones) and intramembranous (bone forms from fibrous membranes; mostly flat bones).

Define periosteum and endosteum.

Periosteum: fibrous membrane covering outside of bone; rich in blood vessels and nerves. Endosteum: membrane lining the marrow cavity.

What is the difference between compact and spongy bone?

Compact bone is dense with haversian systems; spongy (cancellous) bone has trabeculae with spaces filled by marrow and lacks haversian systems.

What are the bones' clinical species variations mentioned?

Cat has a clavicle; dog does not; males may have baculum/os penis in some species; cattle have os cordis in the heart.

What are the major components of a synovial joint?

Joint cavity with synovial fluid; synovial membrane and joint capsule; diarthrosis (freely movable).

What is the function of the skin’s stratum corneum?

Outer protective, waterproofing layer consisting of keratinized cells shed and renewed regularly.

Name the layers of the skin from outer to inner.

Epidermis (stratum corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale), dermis (corium), and hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue).

What are the main components of the tooth-hair analogy in the integument and growth?

Hair has medulla, cortex, and cuticle; grows from follicles with an arrector muscle; gland-associated follicles produce sebum; arrector pili cause piloerection.

What are the components of the eye’s tear production and drainage system?

Lacrimal gland produces tears; tears drain via nasolacrimal duct into nasal cavity.

What are the three regions of the pharynx?

Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

What is the function of the alveoli?

Site of gas exchange between air and blood in the lungs.

What is the coronary circulation?

Coronary arteries supply the myocardium with blood; coronary veins drain waste products.

What is the role of the diaphragm in respiration?

During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and moves caudally, increasing thoracic cavity volume; during expiration, it relaxes and moves cranially, decreasing volume.

What are the three phases of urine formation?

Filtration (glomeral filtration into Bowman's capsule), reabsorption (nutrients reabsorbed from filtrate in tubules), and secretion (substances secreted into filtrate).

What are the two main hormones related to kidney water and salt balance and their roles?

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases water reabsorption; aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption.

Where are male reproductive organs located and what structures constitute the spermatic cord?

Testicles in the scrotum produce sperm; epididymis stores and matures sperm; vas deferens connects epididymis to urethra; spermatic cord includes blood vessels and nerves.

Name the male accessory sex glands and a species-specific example.

Glands that produce semen; dogs have a prostate only; cats have prostate and bulbourethral glands; stallions have vesicular glands, prostate, bulbourethral glands, and ampulla.

Describe the female reproductive structures and their species variations.

Ovaries produce ova and hormones; oviducts conduct ova; uterus may have horns (varies by species); cervix acts as the canal to the uterus; vagina/vestibule lead to the exterior; species variations in horns and cervix.

What are the stages of the estrous cycle in order from Preestrus to Anestrus?

Proestrus (follicle growth, estrogen buildup); Estrus (standing heat, ovulation occurs in some species); Metestrus (corpus luteum forms); Diestrus (progesterone from CL; pregnancy or pseudopregnancy); Anestrus (period of inactivity in some seasonal breeders).

What fetal membranes surround the developing embryo?

Amnion (fluid-filled sac), Allantois (vascular; exchanges with mother), Chorion (outer layer attaching to endometrium).

What is parturition and the role of oxytocin?

Labor; uterus contracts to deliver the fetus; oxytocin from the pituitary stimulates contractions.

What is dystocia and what can cause it?

Difficult birth; can be due to maternal factors (pelvic size, anatomy) or fetal factors (presentation, size, position).

What are the stages of lactation and the hormonal influence?

Milk production is stimulated by prolactin; milk ejection is stimulated by oxytocin.

What are the main components of the eye’s iris and pupil?

Iris is the colored, contractile part; it regulates the pupil size to control light entry; pupil is the opening in the center of the iris.

What is the difference between the lens and the cornea in the eye?

Cornea is the transparent outer covering; lens focuses light onto the retina.

What are the major regions of the brain listed and their roles (cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum)?

Cerebrum: motor control, sensory interpretation, higher functions; Diencephalon includes thalamus and hypothalamus; Brain stem includes midbrain, pons, medulla; Cerebellum coordinates balance and coordination.