Glossary of Terms in Medical Interventions

algorithm

An algorithm is a step-by-step process that performs a computational task.

allele

Any of the alternative forms of a gene that may occur at a given locus.

allocation policies

Rules or policies, generally based on medical criteria, established by the OPTN to guide and regulate organ allocation or distribution in the United States.

amino acid

The subunit of a protein.

amniocentesis

A technique for determining genetic abnormalities in a fetus by the presence of certain chemicals or defective fetal cells in the amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus.

ampicillin

A penicillin that is effective against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.

anesthesia

Loss of sensation and usually of consciousness without loss of vital functions artificially produced by the administration of one or more agents that block the passage of pain impulses along nerve pathways to the brain.

anneal

To be capable of combining with complementary nucleic acid by a process of heating and cooling.

antibiotic

A substance produced by or derived from a microorganism and able in dilute solution to inhibit or kill another microorganism.

antibiotic resistance

Resistance to one or more antibiotics, usually due to additional genetic information.

antibody

A protein secreted by plasma cells (differentiated B cells) that binds to a particular antigen and marks it for elimination.

antigen

A foreign macromolecule that does not belong to the host organism and elicits an immune response.

apoptosis

The changes that occur within a cell as it undergoes programmed cell death, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die.

audiogram

A graphic representation of the relation of vibration frequency and the minimum sound intensity for hearing.

bacterial transformation

The process by which the genetic makeup of the call is changed by the uptake of DNA from the environment.

biofeedback

The technique of making unconscious or involuntary bodily processes (as heartbeat or brain waves) perceptible to the senses in order to manipulate them by conscious mental control.

bioinformaticians

Scientists involved in the field of bioinformatics.

bioinformatics

The collection, classification, storage, and analysis of biochemical and biological information using computers especially as applied in molecular genetics and genomics.

biopsy

The removal and examination of tissue, cells, or fluids from the living body.

bone scan

A test that detects areas of increased or decreased bone metabolism; test is performed to identify abnormal processes involving the bone such as tumor, infection, or fracture.

BRCA

Either of two tumor suppressor genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2) that in mutated form tend to be associated with an increased risk of certain cancers and especially breast and ovarian cancers.

cancer

A malignant tumor of potentially unlimited growth that expands locally and systemically.

carrier screening

Indiscriminate examination of members of a population to detect heterozygotes for serious disorders.

case-control study

A type of epidemiologic study where a group of individuals with the diseases, referred to as cases, are compared to individuals without the disease, referred to as controls.

cell cycle

An ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two.

central dogma of molecular biology

The two-step process, transcription and translation, by which the information in genes flows into proteins: DNA → RNA → protein.

chemotherapy

The use of chemical agents in the treatment or control of disease or mental disorder.

chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

A technique for diagnosing genetic and congenital defects in a fetus by removing and analyzing a sample of the fetal portion of the placenta.

chromatography

A process in which a chemical mixture carried by a liquid or gas is separated into components as a result of differential distribution of the solutes as they flow around or over a stationary liquid or solid phase.

clinical trial

A scientifically controlled study of the safety and effectiveness of a therapeutic agent (as a drug or vaccine) using consenting human subjects.

cloning

Using a somatic or body cell from a multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals.

cochlear implant

An electrical prosthetic device that enables individuals with sensorineural hearing loss to recognize some sounds and that consists of an external microphone and speech processor that receive and convert sound waves into electrical signals which are transmitted to one or more electrodes implanted in the cochlea where they stimulate the auditory nerve.

cohort study

A type of epidemiologic study where a group of exposed individuals (individuals who have been exposed to the potential risk factor) and a group of non-exposed individuals are followed over time to determine the incidence of disease.

column chromatography

Chromatography in which the substances to be separated are introduced onto the top of a column packed with an adsorbent (as silica gel or alumina), pass through the column at different rates that depend on the affinity of each substance for the adsorbent and for the solvent or solvent mixture, and are usually collected in solution as they pass from the column at different times.

computed tomography scan (CT or CAT Scan)

A sectional 3-dimensional view of the body constructed by computed tomography.

concentration

The amount of a specified substance in a unit amount of another substance.

conductive hearing loss

Hearing loss or impairment resulting from interference with the transmission of sound waves to the cochlea.

conjugation

The one-way transfer of DNA between bacteria in cellular contact.

controlled study

Clinical trial in which the subjects are distributed into groups which are either subjected to the experimental procedure (as use of a drug) or which serve as controls.

crossmatch

The testing of the compatibility of the bloods or tissues of a donor and a recipient by mixing the blood or tissue of the other to determine the absence of agglutination reactions.

cryosurgery

Surgery in which diseased or abnormal tissue (as a tumor or wart) is destroyed or removed by freezing (as by the use of liquid nitrogen).

denaturation

In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.

diagnostic Imaging

Technologies that doctors use to look inside your body for clues about a medical condition; includes X-rays, CT scans, nuclear medicine scans, MRI scans and ultrasound.

dialysis

Medical procedure to remove wastes or toxins from the blood and adjust fluid and electrolyte imbalances by utilizing rates at which substances diffuse through a semipermeable membrane.

DNA ligase

A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication and recombinant DNA techniques.

DNA microarray

A microarray of immobilized single-stranded DNA fragments of known nucleotide sequence that is used especially in the identification and sequencing of DNA samples and in the analysis of gene expression (as in a cell or tissue).

double blind study

An experimental procedure in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which subjects are in the test and control groups during the actual course of the experiments.

enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA)

A quantitative in vitro test for an antibody or antigen in which the test material is absorbed on a surface and exposed either to a complex of an enzyme linked to an antibody specific for the antigen or an enzyme linked to an anti-immunoglobulin specific for the antibody followed by reaction of the enzyme with a substrate to yield a colored product corresponding to the concentration of the test material.

elute

Remove by washing with a solvent.

end stage renal disease

The final stage of kidney failure (as that resulting from diabetes, chronic hypertension, or glomerulonephritis) that is marked by the complete or nearly complete irreversible loss of renal function.

enzyme

A protein serving as a catalyst; a chemical agent that changes the rate of reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

epidemic

Affecting an atypically large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time.

epidemiology

A branch of medical science that deals with the incidence, distribution, and control of disease in a population.

familial cancer

Cancer that occurs in families more often than would be expected by chance. These cancers often occur at an early age, and may indicate the presence of a gene mutation that increases the risk of cancer. They may also be a sign of shared environmental or lifestyle factors.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

"The Food and Drug Administration is responsible for protecting the public health by ensuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices; and by ensuring the safety of our nation's food supply, cosmetics, and products that emit radiation."

gel electrophoresis

The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electric field in a gel.

gene

A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA.

gene therapy

The alteration of the genes of a person afflicted with a genetic disease.

genetic counseling

A process of communication that deals with the occurrence or risk that a genetic disorder will occur in a family.

genetic engineering

The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.

genetic marker

Alteration in DNA that may indicate an increased risk of developing a specific disease or disorder.

genetic testing

The use of methods to determine if someone has a genetic disorder, will develop one, or is a carrier.

genome

The complement of an organism's genes; an organism's genetic material.

genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism.

haplotype

A group of alleles of different genes on a single chromosome that are closely enough linked to be inherited usually as a unit.

hearing aid

An electronic device usually worn by a person for amplifying sound before it reaches the receptor organs.

hemodialysis

The process of removing blood from an artery (as of a kidney patient), purifying it by dialysis, adding vital substances, and returning it to a vein.

herd immunity

The resistance of a group to an attack by a disease to which a large proportion of the members of the group are immune.

hereditary cancer

An inherited disorder in which affected individuals have a higher-than-normal chance of developing certain types of cancer, often before the age of 50.

histocompatibility

A state of mutual tolerance between tissues that allows them to be grafted effectively.

human leukocyte antigen (HLA)

Molecules found on all nucleated cells in the body that help the immune system to recognize whether or not a cell is foreign to the body. These antigens are inherited from one's parents. Human leukocyte antigens are used to determine the compatibility of kidneys and pancreases for transplantation from one individual to another. The major groups of HLA antigens are HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-DR.

hydrophilic

Having an affinity for water.

hydrophobic

Having an aversion to water.

in vitro

Performed in the lab, outside of a living organism.

in vitro fertilization

A procedure in which gametes are fertilized in a dish in the laboratory, and the resulting zygote is implanted in the uterus for development.

in vivo

Taking place inside a living organism.

inner ear

The essential part of the vertebrate organ of hearing and equilibrium that includes the vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea.

inoculation

The introduction of a pathogen or antigen into a living organism to stimulate the production of antibodies.

insulin

A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues.

iterative

A process that repeats a series of steps over and over until the desired outcome is obtained.

job shadowing

An opportunity to follow a professional throughout their day to learn more about the daily tasks and responsibilities of their role.

karyotype

A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.

kidney transplant

To transfer a kidney from one individual to another.

laparoscope

A fiber optic camera that is inserted through an incision in the abdominal wall and is used to examine visually the interior of the peritoneal cavity.

laparoscopy

A minimally invasive surgery involving visual examination of the inside of the abdomen by means of a laparoscope.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A noninvasive diagnostic technique that produces computerized images of internal body tissues and is based on nuclear magnetic resonance of atoms within the body induced by the application of radio waves.

major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

A family of genes that encode a large set of cell surface proteins called MHC molecules. Class I and class II MHC molecules function in antigen presentation to T cells. Foreign MHC molecules on transplanted tissue can trigger T cell responses that may lead to rejection of the transplant.

marker analysis

A genetic technique whereby the sequence of the gene is not directly analyzed, but the mutant copy (allele) of the gene is inferred through analysis of a genetic marker.

medical intervention

Any measure whose purpose is to improve health or alter the course of disease.

melanoma

A tumor of high malignancy that starts in melanocytes of normal skin or moles and metastasizes rapidly and widely.

metacognition

Metacognition is the mental process that learners use to understand and monitor their learning.

metastasis

The spread of a disease-producing agency (such as cancer cells or bacteria) from the initial or primary site of disease to another part of the body.

microsatellite (also known as short tandem repeats-STRs)

Any of numerous short segments of DNA that are distributed throughout the genome, that consist of repeated sequences of usually two to five nucleotides, and that are often useful markers in studies of genetic linkage because they tend to vary from one individual to another.

middle ear

The intermediate portion of the ear containing a chain of three ossicles that extends from the tympanic membrane to the oval window and transmits vibrations to the inner ear.

model system

An organism chosen to study broad biological principles.

myoelectric

Utilizing electricity generated by muscle.

nanomedicine

Area of biomedical research that seeks to use tools from the field of nanotechnology to improve health.

National Organ Transplant Act (NOTA)

The National Organ Transplant Act (1984 Public Law 98-507), approved October 19, 1984 and amended in 1988 and 1990, provided for the establishment of the Task Force on Organ Transplantation; authorized the Secretary of HHS to make grants for the planning, establishment, and initial operation of qualified OPOs; and established the formation of the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (OPTN) and Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients (SRTR).

nephrectomy

The surgical removal of a kidney.

newborn screening

The analysis of a neonate's blood for metabolic or genetic disorders to prevent mental retardation, disability or death.