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What is the social brain hypothesis?
Primates have large brains, particularly large prefrontal cortices, because they live in complex social groups that change over time.
What is a group? What are ingroups and outgroups?
A group consists of 2 or more individuals who interact, share common goals, and influence how each other thinks. Ingroups are groups to which you belong, while outgroups are those to which you do not belong.
What are social norms? What are roles? What is role conflict?
Social norms are explicit and implicit rules that govern the behavior and attitudes of group members. Roles are the behaviors expected of an individual due to their group membership. Role conflict occurs when a person's roles have conflicting expectations.
What are the conditions of reciprocity and transitivity in terms of group formation?
To form a group, reciprocity (people treat others as they are treated) and transitivity (people generally share their friends’ opinions about others) must be respected.
What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?
The tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members.
What is the positivity bias? What is ingroup favoritism?
The positivity bias is the tendency to view ingroup members more favorably than outgroup members. Ingroup favoritism means we are more likely to distribute resources or do favors for ingroup members than outgroup members.
What is social identity theory?
People not only identify with certain groups but also value these groups and experience pride in group membership.
What is the minimal group paradigm?
When groups are formed completely arbitrarily.
What brain area is associated with group membership?
The medial prefrontal cortex is important for thinking about other people.
What is dehumanization?
When opponents view each other as less than human and thus less deserving of moral consideration.
What is the risky shift effect? What is group polarization?
The risky shift effect is the tendency for group decisions to be less conservative than the average individual’s decision. Group polarization is the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion.
What is groupthink and when does it typically occur?
Groupthink occurs when a group faces external pressure, leading members to refrain from voicing disagreements to maintain harmony.
What is mindguarding?
To preserve good feelings, only dissenting voices are suppressed.
How can groupthink be prevented?
Groupthink can be prevented when a leader welcomes diverse opinions, invites critique from experts, and assigns individuals to identify possible problems.
What is minority influence?
The power of a minority to sway majorities when they have a firm, unwavering belief.
What is social facilitation?
Enhanced performance in the presence of others.
What is social impairment?
Reduced performance in the presence of others.
What is evaluation apprehension?
The worry about being judged or evaluated negatively by others.
What was Zajonc’s model to explain facilitation and impairment?
All animals are genetically predisposed to become aroused in the presence of others, leading to a dominant response; easy tasks result in social facilitation, difficult ones lead to social impairment.
What is social loafing?
The tendency for individuals in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards a common goal.
What is a diffusion of responsibility?
When individuals feel less personally responsible and thus are less concerned about others' opinions.
What is deindividuation?
Immersion in a group causes people to become less attentive to personal values and reduces their sense of responsibility.
What is conformity?
Altering behavior to match that of others or meet expectations.
What is the chameleon effect?
Unconsciously mimicking others’ expressions, posture, or voice.
What is mood linkage?
A sharing of moods.
Describe the two primary reasons as to why people conform.
Normative influence, which is going along with the group to fit in; and informational influence, where uncertainty prompts individuals to look to others for guidance.
What percentage of people in the Asch experiment knowingly gave a wrong answer on each occasion?
37%.
What did Asch conclude about people who deviate from the group norm?
They are actively disliked.
Describe the factors that can increase and decrease conformity.
Group size (smaller groups decrease conformity), the presence of dissenting voices, and social/cultural context (collectivist societies tend to see more conformity).
What is obedience?
The tendency to follow directions from powerful people or those in authority.
In the Milgram experiment, what percentage of people did psychologists believe would shock someone up to 450 volts? What percentage actually ended up doing it?
0-3% were believed to do it, but 62% actually did.
What was Milgram’s main conclusion?
Ordinary people can be coerced into obedience by authoritative figures.
Describe factors that can increase or decrease obedience.
Buffers (not seeing consequences), perception of a legitimate authority, foot-in-the-door phenomenon (small initial compliance makes larger compliance easier), and socialization.
What is aggression? What is the difference between instrumental aggression and hostile aggression?
Aggression is behavior intended to harm another. Instrumental aggression is motivated by a goal, while hostile aggression is intended for harm's sake.
What role may the amygdala play in aggression?
The amygdala’s reactivity is a good predictor of aggressive behavior.
What role may serotonin play in aggression? What have low levels of serotonin been associated with in adults and children?
Serotonin is important for controlling aggressive behavior; low serotonin levels are linked to increased aggression.
How does testosterone seem to promote aggressive behavior?
By making individuals concerned with their status and confident in their power to prevail.
In what ways do women differ from men in their use of aggression?
Women are generally less aggressive but their aggression tends to be less impulsive compared to men.
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?
The level of frustration a person experiences predicts the likelihood of aggression.
How does the cognitive neoassociationistic model of aggression differ from the frustration aggression model?
It emphasizes negative emotions triggering aggression, stating only situations that elicit negative emotions can lead to aggressive behavior.
What relationship does the MAOA gene have to aggression?
It regulates monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that controls serotonin levels.
What are prosocial behaviors?
Behaviors motivated by empathy that aim to benefit others.
What is social exchange theory? What is the reciprocity norm?
Social exchange theory posits that we aim to maximize rewards and minimize costs, while the reciprocity norm suggests people should help those who have helped them.
What is altruism? What is inclusive fitness/kin selection?
Altruism is providing help without expected reward; inclusive fitness is the idea that being altruistic toward those sharing genes increases gene transmission.
What is reciprocal altruism?
One animal assists another with the expectation of future reciprocation.
According to Darley and Latane, what three things must happen for someone to offer help in an emergency?
One must notice the incident, interpret it as an emergency, and assume responsibility for helping.
What is the bystander effect/bystander apathy?
The failure to help someone in need when there are other witnesses.
Describe the four factors that may cause bystander apathy.
Diffusion of responsibility, fear of social blunder, lack of anonymity, and assessing personal risk versus benefits.
In what situations can close contact help to reduce conflict?
When the contact is noncompetitive and between individuals of equal status.
In the Robbers’ Cave Study, what type of contact did Sherif find best for reducing conflict?
Cooperative contact/shared superordinate goals requiring collaboration.
What are attitudes?
Enduring evaluations, positive or negative, of people, objects, or events formed through experience and socialization.
What is the mere exposure effect?
Greater exposure to an item increases familiarity, leading to more positive attitudes about it.
Which type of attitudes do people seem to develop the fastest?
Negative attitudes.
What factors influence predicting attitudes from behavior?
Specificity, strength of attitudes, direct experience, vested interest, and accessibility.
What is the difference between explicit and implicit attitudes? What is the IAT?
Explicit attitudes are consciously recognized and defensible; implicit attitudes function nonconsciously. The IAT is a test measuring implicit attitudes.
What is balance theory?
The preference for harmonious triads of relationships and aversion to disharmonious ones.
What is cognitive dissonance? When does it occur? What does it motivate people to do?
Cognitive dissonance occurs when conflicting thoughts or behaviors cause discomfort, motivating people to change their attitudes or behaviors.
What are rationalizations?
Myths we create to reduce cognitive dissonance.
What were the results of Festinger’s dissonance experiment?
Insufficient justification for a behavior can lead to a change in attitude, helping to reduce cognitive dissonance.
What is post-decisional dissonance?
Accepting and reconciling with a decision made.
What is persuasion?
The active effort to change attitudes or behaviors through messages.
Describe the source, content, and audience of a persuasive message and important qualities for a source.
The source delivers the message and should be likable and credible. The content conveys strong arguments appealing to emotions. The audience processes the message.
What is the boomerang effect?
When persuasive efforts result in the opposite of the intended outcome.
What are the differences between one-sided and two-sided arguments?
One-sided arguments work best for audiences already on your side, while two-sided arguments acknowledge counterarguments for skeptical audiences.
Describe the elaboration likelihood model.
Persuasion follows the central route when there’s motivation and capability, utilizing strong arguments, otherwise it employs the peripheral route, relying on cues like source attractiveness.