AP BIOLOGY FINAL OVERVIEW

Describe aspects of water

POLAR - help by hyrdogen bonds

SOLVENT - polar and can separate ionic or polar solutes

HIGH HEAT CAPACITY - absorbs a lot of heat causing it to take a long time to boil

COHESION - water bonding to water (water on penny experiment)

ADHESION - water bonds to other surfaces (water on glass)

SURFACE TENSION - due to cohesion it allows for a surface things can rest on (water bugs)

Why can ice float?

H bonds STOP breaking -> solid water is LESS DENSE due to the empty space between frozen molecules

What is evaporative cooling? An example?

Water turning from liquid to gas ABSORBS heat from the surrounding air -> lowers the temperature

Ex) sweating

Acid

too much H+

(some needs to be removed)

Basic

not enough H+

(some needs to be added)

Biochemistry

study of carbon based molecules

Carbon Backbone

the string of carbon that makes up MOST organic molecules

Hydrocarbon

molecule that ONLY consists of hydrogen AND carbon

Structural Isomer

molecules that have the SAME elements but in DIFFERENT order

Geometric Isomers

Difference revolves around a DOUBLE bond

Stereoisomer

MIRROR IMAGE of one another

How do macromolecules get put together and tor apart?

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS/CONDENSATION REACTION

(same thing)

Hydrolysis

a water molecule is added to rip it apart

Dehydration synthesis

taking water OUT to connect

Carbohydrate

Monosaccharide, Disaccharide, Polysaccharide

(GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE holds 2 sugars together)

What carbs do plants and animals use for energy and structure?

Plants - STARCH and CELLULOSE

Animals - GLYCOGEN and CHITIN

Lipid

phospholipid, waxes, steroids, triglycerides

(ESTER LINKAGE holds fats together)

Saturated Fats

SINGLE bonds between carbon atoms

"saturated with hydrogen atoms"

Are saturated or unsaturated fats better for you?

UNSATURATED

Unsaturated Fats

AT LEAST one double bond within the fatty acids chain

(the chain has a crooked end)

Proteins

- PEPTIDE BONDS hold proteins together

- primary level (ORDER of amino acids)

- secondary level (FOLDING into pleats or COILING into a helix)

- tertiary (FOLDING of the secondary structure -R group- into a 3D shape)

- quarternary (two or more polypeptides come together)

How can proteins DENATURE?

temperature, pH, organic compounds, heavy metal ions

Nucleic Acids

sugar, phosphate group, base

- pyrimidine and purine

Pyrimidine

1 ring with T and C

(pyramids built one block at a time - CATS protect the pyramids)

Purine

2 rings with A and G

(angles have 2 wings)

Integral Proteins

found INSIDE the cell membrane

Peripheral proteins

found on the INSIDE OF THE CELL along the cell membrane

Cholesterol

helps STABILIZE the cell membrane

Carbohydrates (fluid mosaic model)

ID MARKERS of the cell

(cell to cell communication)

Semi - permeable

allows SOME stuff in, but NOT EVERYTHING

Passive transport

- DOES NOT use energy (atp)

- HIGH TO LOW concentration (along concentration gradient)

Active transport

- REQUIRES energy (atp)

- LOW TO HIGH concentration (against gradient)

Hypotonic solution

not have much stuff, WATER ENTERS

- animal cells can pop

- plant cells reach turgor pressure due to cell wall (like it)

Hypertonic solution

more stuff, WATER LEAVES

- animal cell shrivels

- plant cell breaks away from cell wallIso

Isotonic solution

equal amounts of "stuff" to water

- EQUILIBRIUM

Catabolic

RELEASE energy as bonds of molecules are BROKEN

- also decrease free energy (LESS POTENTIAL ENERGY)

Exergonic

RELEASE energy and heat

- tear apart molecules

Anabolic

require energy to put molecules together

- increase free energy (STORE ENERGY)

Endergonic

TAKE IN ENERGY

Active site

spot where the substrate and enzyme FIT TOGETHER

- perfect fit = INDUCED FIT

- friend that helps = COFACTOR

Competitive Inhibitor/Noncompetitive Inhibitor

prevents the substrate from entering the active site (competitive blocks the site, noncompetitive changes the shape of the spot)

cellular respiration

the BREAKING DOWN of food molecules into ENERGY

glycolysis, krebs cycle, ETC

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy

Glycolysis

- "splitting of sugar"

- only releases 1/4 of the energy from glucose

- does NOT require oxygen

- does NOT release CO2

- happens in the CYTOPLASM

- needs ATP to be invested in order to run the steps

What happens is there is no oxygen available during glycolysis?

the cells undergo ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Cell Division steps

Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

*INCLUDES I and C

Mitosis steps

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Mitosis

DIVISION OF THE NUCLEUS into 2 IDENTICAL nuclei

Interphase

G1, S, G2

G1 - cell grows and starts duplicating organelles

S - DNA duplicates

G2 - cell finishes growing and double checks the DNA

Prophase

- Chromosomes become visible

- nuclear membrane dissolves

- spindle fibers start to form

- 2 sister chromatids connect = centromere

Metaphase

- sister chromatids more to the middle and "line up"

Anaphase

- sister chromatids separate

- the Kinetechore "eat" the microtubules and that is how the sisters separate

Telophase

- new nuclear membrane forms around the separated chromosomes

- at end, a cleavage furrow or cell plate starts to form

Cytokinesis

- Animals : cleavage furrow continues to pinch off in the animal cell to create two NEW cells

- Plant : a cell plate forms to create the two NEW cells

What cells undergo MITOSIS?

somatic/body

What cells undergo MEIOSIS

gametes/sex

Meiosis steps

P1, M1, A1, T1, P2, M2, A2, T2

How many times does MEIOSIS undergo interphase?

ONLY 1; NO SECOND DNA DUPLICATION

Meiosis

- used for sexual reproduction

- start with 46 chromosomes, end with 4 cells that are UNIQUE (crossing over and independent assortment) from one another

- ONLY HAPPENS IN GONADS

Mendel's 5 theories

- alternative versions of genes called ALLELES

- principle of dominance

- EACH character inherited TWO alleles

- Law of segregation

- Law of independent assortment

Multiple Alleles

MORE THAN 2 ALLELES

- ABO blood

Codominace

- BOTH alleles are expresses

ex) human blood group

incomplete dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele

Red flower + White flower = PINK flower

Pleiotropy

- one gene has MULTIPLE phenotypic effects (one gene has many effects in/on the body)

ex) Sickle Cell Diseas, Cystic Fibrosis

Epistasis

Phenotype produces by alleles of ONE gene is INFLUENCES by a genotype of another

- rat color

Polygenic Inheritance

- MORE than one gene affects one phenotype

ex) SKIN COLOR

SRY gene

- sex determining region of Y chromosome

- turns on when the embryo is abt 2 months into development

Genomic Imprinting

Some alleles have different results depending if it came from the egg or sperm

ex) Prader-Willi and Angelman's Syndrome

Nondisjunction

homologous chromosomes fail to separate

Deletion

a fragment of the chromosome is removed

Duplication

repeats a segment of the chromosome

Inversion

a chromosome piece reattaches in reverse orientation

Translocation

a fragment of one chromosome attaches to another chromosome

PKU (phenylketonuria)

AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE

Sickle-Cell Anemia

AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE

Tay-Sachs Disease

Autosomal Recessive

Huntington's disease

AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT

Hemophelia

Sex-Linked recessive

Red-Green Color Blindness

SEX-LINKED RECESSIVE

Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy

SEX-LINKED RECESSIVE

Down Syndrome

NONDISJUNCTION on chrom #2

Turner Syndrome

NONDISJUNCTION (only one X)

Klinefelter Syndrome

NONDISJUNCTION (XXY)

Cri Du Chat Syndrome

Deletion (chrom. 5)

Prader - WIlli Syndrome

A disorder on chrom. 15

Angelmann Syndrome

Inheritance of the deletion from the MOTHER on chrom. 15

Fragile X Syndrome

MUTATION of FMRI gene on X chromosome

Cystic Fibrosis

AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE

Antiparallel

strands go in opposite directions

Nucleotides

sugar, phosphate group, and a base (A,T,G,C, and U-RNA)

What makes up the BACKBONE of DNA?

deoxyribose (sugar) and phosphate

held together by COVALENT BONDS

What do the bases make up in DNA?

The rungs

held together by HYDROGEN BONDS

- A, T made up of TWO hyd. bonds

- C, G made up of THREE hyd. bonds

Semi - conservative

Each strand is used as a template

*the 2 daughter DNAs have 1 old and 1 new strand

Helicase

unzips

Polymerase

- ADDS nucleotide in the 5' to 3' direction

Leading strand

made continuously - follows the helicase

Lagging strand

has to be made in chunks because it moves opposite of the helicase

Ligase

glues the the gaps (okasaki fragments) of the lagging strand

RNA primers

leads the DNA polymerase (gives it something to bind to)

What do restriction enzymes form?

sticky ends - strands of DNA that aren't attached to a complementary base after being cut by the restriction enzyme

Gel Electrophoresis

1. DNA extracted from cell

2. DNA is cut up with Restriction Enzymes

3. Cut DNA is loaded in a well on a gel

4. Electricity is run through the gel, causing the negatively charges DNA to move towards the positive end