Behav Neuro - ai

Approximately how many neurons are in the human brain?

~100 billion neurons.

How many connections can a single neuron make?

A single neuron can connect to 5,000 - 10,000 other neurons.

How much of the body's oxygen and energy does the brain consume?

It consumes over 20% of the body's oxygen and energy.

Compare and contrast the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

CNS: Composed of the brain and spinal cord, main control center processing sensory information. PNS: Composed of nerves and ganglia connecting the CNS to the body.

What are the two main functional divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System, and what are their primary roles?

Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements to skeletal muscles. Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

Differentiate between the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems.

Sympathetic: Manages fight-or-flight response. Parasympathetic: Manages rest and digest functions.

What are the two primary cell types in the nervous system?

Neurons: Transmit information. Glial Cells: Support neurons and maintain their environment.

Describe the main functions of the soma (cell body), dendrites, and axon.

Soma: Contains nucleus, synthesizes proteins. Dendrites: Receive signals. Axon: Sends electrical impulses.

What is the axon hillock?

The cone-shaped region where the axon joins the cell body, crucial for initiating the action potential.

What are axon terminals? What is myelin?

Axon Terminals: End points of axon releasing neurotransmitters. Myelin: Insulating layer speeding up signal transmission.

Define afferent, efferent, and interneuron neurons.

Afferent: Carry signals from sensory organs to the CNS. Efferent: Carry signals from the CNS to muscles or glands. Interneurons: Relay stations within the CNS.

What are six key functions of glial cells?

Support neurons, insulation, homeostasis, cleanup, regulation of neurotransmission, development.

Identify the main glial cell types in the CNS and their primary functions.

Astrocytes: Support and regulate blood-brain barrier. Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate axons. Microglia: Protect against pathogens.

What are the two main glial cell types in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Schwann Cells: Myelinate axons in PNS, aiding in nerve regeneration. Satellite Cells: Surround neurons, regulating their chemical environment.

What were the two competing theories about the structure of the nervous system proposed by Golgi and Cajal?

Golgi: Nervous system as a continuous network. Cajal: Nervous system made of individual neurons communicating at synapses.

Compare and contrast electrical and chemical synapses in terms of speed, directionality, and prevalence.

Electrical: Fast, bidirectional, rare; Chemical: Slower, unidirectional, most common.

Briefly describe the sequence of events in chemical synaptic transmission.

1. Action potential arrives at presynaptic terminal. 2. Neurotransmitters released. 3. NTs bind to receptors on postsynaptic neuron. 4. Ion channels open/close.

Give an example of a mental or neurological disorder linked to dysfunction in a specific neurotransmitter system.

Parkinson's Disease: Dopaminergic transmission. Depression: Serotonin/Norepinephrine. Myasthenia Gravis: Cholinergic transmission.

What is the key difference between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?

Ionotropic: Direct binding causing fast changes in membrane potential. Metabotropic: Indirect signaling causing slower, longer-lasting effects.

What is an EPSP and an IPSP? What ion movements typically cause them?

EPSP: Depolarization (Na+ or Ca2+ influx). IPSP: Hyperpolarization (Cl- influx or K+ efflux).

List the main classes of neurotransmitters and give an example of each.

Amino Acids: Glutamate, GABA. Monoamines: Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Serotonin. Peptides: Endorphins. Purines: Adenosine. Gasotransmitters: Nitric oxide.

Match the neurotransmitter to its predominant effect and related mental disorder.

Serotonin: Mood regulation (Depression). Dopamine: Reward, motivation (Schizophrenia). GABA: Anxiety reduction.

What are the three main ways neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft?

Reuptake, enzymatic degradation, diffusion & glial uptake.

Give examples of reuptake inhibitors used therapeutically and as drugs of abuse.

Therapeutic: SSRIs, SNRIs. Drugs of Abuse: Cocaine, amphetamines.

What is the function of an autoreceptor?

Located on presynaptic neuron, senses neurotransmitter levels, providing negative feedback to inhibit release.

Is the statement 'We only use 10% of our brain' a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. Brain imaging shows all brain parts are active.

Is the statement 'The brain can adapt to injury' a myth or fact? Explain.

FACT. The brain can reorganize itself through neuroplasticity.

Is the statement 'You can survive with half your brain' a myth or fact? Explain.

FACT. Hemispherectomy can result in the remaining half compensating for lost functions.

Is the idea that people are either 'right-brained' or 'left-brained' a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. Both brain hemispheres work together for complex tasks.

Is the statement 'The brain stops developing in adulthood' a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. The brain continues to change, including neurogenesis.

Is the 'Mozart Effect' a myth or fact?

MYTH. There is no evidence that listening to Mozart directly increases IQ.

Is the statement 'The human brain is fully mature by age 25' a myth or fact? Explain.

FACT. Prefrontal cortex matures last; connections continue to prune into the mid-20s.

Is the statement 'Alcohol kills brain cells' a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. Alcohol does not kill neurons directly but can damage brain function.

Is the statement 'The brain has electricity' a myth or fact? Explain.

FACT. Neurons communicate via action potentials based on electrical signals.

Is the idea that memory works like a perfect video recorder a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. Memories are reconstructed and can be influenced by various factors.

Is the statement 'Multitasking makes you more efficient' a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. The brain cannot focus on two complex tasks simultaneously.

Is the statement 'You can train your brain to be smarter with brain games' a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. Improvement is usually task-specific, not overall intelligence.

Is the statement 'Bigger brains are better brains' a myth or fact? Explain.

MYTH. Intelligence relates more to neural efficiency than size.

How much does the average human brain weigh?

The brain weighs approximately 1.5 kg (about 3.3 lbs).

Is the statement 'Our brains change as they age' a myth or fact? Explain.

FACT. Brains undergo changes with aging, affecting various cognitive functions.

What is the limbic system and what are its main functions?

The limbic system regulates emotions and memory, key structures include the hippocampus, amygdala.

What are the key structures and neurotransmitter in the brain's primary reward circuit?

Mesolimbic pathway; key structures include VTA, NAc; key neurotransmitter is dopamine.

How does the dopamine release caused by drugs of abuse differ from that caused by natural reinforcers?

Drugs cause a much more intense, rapid, and sustained release of dopamine.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in addiction?

Responsible for decision-making and inhibitory control; its function is impaired in addiction.

How is addiction characterized as a chronically relapsing disorder?

Three stages: Binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, preoccupation/anticipation.

Briefly describe the progression from initial use to addiction in terms of brain changes.

Initial use causes dopamine release; neuroplastic changes lead to compulsive drug habits.

Besides the VTA and NAc, what other brain regions are critically involved in addiction?

Prefrontal Cortex, Amygdala, Hippocampus.

What common effect do all addictive drugs have?

All addictive drugs cause increased dopamine release from VTA to NAc.

What is the role of glutamatergic signaling from the mPFC to the NAc in the context of addiction?

Promotes inhibitory control over drug-seeking behavior; dysregulation contributes to addiction.

What is the primary reinforcing neurotransmitter involved in addiction?\n\n

Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter associated with reward and pleasure in addiction.\n\n

How does tolerance develop in addiction?\n\n

Tolerance occurs when repeated use of a drug reduces its effects, leading to increased use to achieve the same outcome.\n\n

What role does the amygdala play in addiction?\n\n

The amygdala processes emotions and memories associated with the drug, contributing to cravings and emotional responses.\n\n

What is the significance of withdrawal symptoms in addiction?\n\n

Withdrawal symptoms indicate physical dependence on a substance and often drive continued use to avoid discomfort.\n\n

Describe the concept of compulsive drug-seeking behavior.\n\n

Compulsive drug-seeking behavior refers to the inability to resist using a substance despite negative consequences, often due to brain changes.\n\n

What is the impact of environmental cues on addiction relapse?\n\n

Environmental cues can trigger cravings and relapse by associating specific places or situations with drug use.\n\n

How does chronic stress influence addiction?\n\n

Chronic stress can enhance vulnerability to addiction by altering brain circuits that regulate reward, mood, and decision-making.\n\n

Explain the role of neuroplasticity in addiction.\n\n

Neuroplasticity allows the brain to adapt to repeated drug exposure, leading to lasting changes that can reinforce addictive behaviors.\n\n

What are the stages of change in addiction recovery?\n\n

The stages of change are precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance, describing the process of overcoming addiction.\n\n

Define habit formation in the context of addiction.\n\n

Habit formation in addiction refers to the automaticity of drug-seeking behavior, often developed through repeated use and reinforcement.\n\n