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Nature and nurture
The interaction between genetic factors and environmental influences on individual development.
Genetic predisposition
An inherited inclination to behave in particular ways due to genetic makeup.
Evolutionary perspective
A viewpoint suggesting that behavioral tendencies evolved through natural selection to enhance survival and reproductive success.
Eugenics
A controversial and unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of human beings.
Twin studies
Research approaches comparing twins to understand the influence of genetics versus environment on behavioral traits.
Stability and change across lifespan
The analysis of how individual characteristics vary or remain unchanged throughout different life stages.
Continuous and discontinuous development
Debate about whether development is a smooth progression (continuous) or occurs in distinct stages (discontinuous).
Longitudinal studies
Research that monitors the same individuals over an extended period to observe changes or continuities in development.
Cross-sectional studies
Research comparing individuals of varying ages at a single point in time to identify developmental differences.
Teratogens
Harmful substances that can cause developmental malformations in a fetus during prenatal development.
Infant reflexes
Automatic reactions to specific stimuli displayed by infants.
Visual cliff
An experimental design used to evaluate depth perception in infants.
Critical and sensitive periods
Specific timeframes in development when experiences must occur for normal development.
Imprinting
A rapid learning process occurring shortly after birth where young animals form attachments.
Adolescent physical development
Biological changes during puberty involving primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Puberty
The developmental phase marked by biological changes that lead to sexual maturity.
Menopause
The period marked by the end of menstrual cycles and a decline in reproductive hormone production.
Overall physical decline later in life
Gradual decrease in mobility and sensory processing that can accompany aging.
Piaget’s theory
A theory about cognitive development describing how children develop logical thinking through distinct stages.
Schema
Cognitive frameworks used to organize and interpret information.
Sensorimotor stage
The initial stage in Piaget’s theory, during which infants learn about the world through senses and actions.
Object permanence
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible.
Preoperational stage
The second stage in Piaget’s theory where children use mental symbols but lack logical reasoning.
Mental symbols
Representations of objects and events in thought.
Pretend play
The ability to create imaginary scenarios reflecting cognitive development.
Conservation (lack of)
Inability to understand that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in form.
Reversibility (inability at this stage)
Inability to mentally reverse actions or processes.
Egocentrism
Cognitive limitation where children cannot perceive things from others' perspectives.
Animism
The belief that inanimate objects possess feelings and life, common in children.
Theory of mind
Understanding that others have their own thoughts and perspectives.
Concrete operational stage
The third stage of Piaget’s theory where children develop logical thinking about concrete events.
Formal operational stage
The final Piagetian stage characterized by the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.
Vygotsky’s view on cognitive development
Emphasizes the role of cultural context and social interactions in cognitive growth.
Cognitive changes as we age
The ways cognitive abilities evolve throughout a person's life.
Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence
Fluid intelligence solves new problems; crystallized intelligence refers to skills acquired through experience.
Dementia
Decline in cognitive abilities severe enough to interfere with everyday functioning.
Ecological systems theory
Outlines the various environmental systems that influence human development.
Microsystem
Immediate environments like family, school, and peers.
Mesosystem
Interconnections between microsystems.
Exosystem
External settings that indirectly affect development.
Macrosystem
Broad cultural and societal influences.
Chronosystem
The dimension of time in the environment.
Parenting styles
Various strategies parents use that impact child development.
Attachment styles
Patterns of emotional bonds between children and caregivers.
Secure attachment
Positive and trusting relationships between children and caregivers.
Insecure attachment
Includes avoidant, anxious, and disorganized attachment styles.
Separation anxiety
Distress experienced by children when separated from primary caregivers.
Attachment — contact comfort vs. food
Harlow's study demonstrated infant monkeys preferred comfort from a soft mother over nourishment from a wire mother.
Parallel and pretend play with peers
Types of play where parallel play is alongside peers and pretend play involves imaginative interactions.
Adolescent thinking (peer influence)
Cognitive processing during adolescence influenced by peers.
Adolescent egocentrism
Heightened self-focus characteristic of adolescence.
Imaginary audience
The belief that one is the center of others’ attention.
Personal fable
The belief in one's unique experiences and invulnerability.
Social clock
The expected timing of life events according to cultural norms.
Emerging adulthood
A developmental stage between adolescence and adulthood characterized by exploration.
Psychosocial stages (Erikson)
Eight stages proposed by Erik Erikson, each with a specific conflict.
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year)
Developing a sense of security.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)
Gaining control over physical skills and independence.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)
Initiating activities and asserting control.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)
Developing a sense of pride through achievements.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years)
Exploring personal identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)
Forming intimate relationships.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
Contributing to society and guiding future generations.
Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)
Reflecting on life and feeling fulfillment or regret.
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)
Potentially traumatic experiences in childhood leading to long-lasting negative effects.
Identity Statuses (James Marcia)
Categories reflecting how individuals manage their identity formation.
Achievement
Commitment to identity after exploration.
Diffusion
Lack of direction or commitment.
Foreclosure
Commitment without exploration.
Moratorium
Exploration without commitment.
Racial/ethnic identity
A sense of belonging to a particular racial or ethnic group.
Sexual orientation
An enduring pattern of attraction to individuals of the same or different gender.
Religious identity
Affiliation with a particular religious group or belief system.
Occupational identity
Sense of self developed through professional roles.
Familial identity
Emotional connection to one’s family and roles within family dynamics.
Possible selves
Various potential identities or roles individuals envision for themselves in the future.
Accommodation
The cognitive process of adjusting one’s existing schemas to incorporate new information or experiences.
Assimilation
The cognitive process of integrating new information into existing schemas without changing the original schema.
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