Nature and nurture: The interaction between genetic factors and environmental influences on individual development.

Genetic predisposition: An inherited inclination to behave in particular ways due to genetic makeup.

Evolutionary perspective: A viewpoint suggesting that behavioral tendencies evolved through natural selection to enhance survival and reproductive success.

Eugenics: A controversial and unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of human beings through selective breeding and other means.

Twin studies: Research approaches that compare twins to understand the influence of genetics versus environment on behavioral traits.

Stability and change across lifespan: The analysis of how individual characteristics vary or remain unchanged throughout different life stages.

Continuous and discontinuous: The debate about whether development is a smooth progression (continuous) or occurs in distinct stages (discontinuous).

Longitudinal studies: Research that monitors the same individuals over an extended period to observe changes or continuities in development.

Cross-sectional studies: Research comparing individuals of varying ages at a single point in time to identify developmental differences.

Teratogens: Harmful substances such as drugs, alcohol, or infections that can cause developmental malformations in a fetus during prenatal development.

Infant reflexes: Automatic reactions to specific stimuli displayed by infants, such as the rooting reflex or grasp reflex.

Visual cliff: An experimental design used to evaluate depth perception in infants, assessing their reactions to visual distance cues.

Critical and sensitive periods: Specific timeframes in development when certain experiences must occur for normal development; critical periods are more rigid than sensitive periods.

Imprinting: A rapid and often irreversible learning process occurring shortly after birth, where young animals form attachments to caregivers or objects in their environment.

Adolescent physical development: The biological changes taking place during puberty, which involve the emergence of primary and secondary sex characteristics.

Puberty: The developmental phase marked by biological changes that lead to sexual maturity, characterized by menarche in females and spermarche in males.

Menopause: The period in a woman's life marked by the end of menstrual cycles and a decline in reproductive hormone production, typically occurring in middle age.

Overall physical decline later in life: The gradual decrease in mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and sensory processing that can accompany aging.

Piaget’s theory: A theory about cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget that describes how children develop logical thinking through a series of distinct stages.

Schema: Cognitive frameworks used to organize and interpret information, which include two processes: assimilation (incorporating new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (modifying schemas to incorporate new information).

Sensorimotor stage: The initial stage in Piaget’s theory, during which infants learn about the world through their senses and actions, developing object permanence.

Object permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible or perceptible, typically developing in the sensorimotor stage.

Preoperational stage: The second stage in Piaget’s theory, where children begin to use mental symbols but lack logical reasoning.

• Mental symbols: Representations of objects and events in thought.

• Pretend play: The ability to create imaginary scenarios, which reflects cognitive development.

• Conservation (lack of): The inability to understand that certain properties of objects (like volume or mass) remain the same despite changes in form or appearance.

• Reversibility (inability at this stage): The inability to mentally reverse actions or processes, hindering logical thinking.

• Egocentrism: The cognitive limitation where children cannot perceive things from perspectives other than their own.

• Animism: The belief that inanimate objects possess feelings, thoughts, and life, a view often held by children in this stage.

• Theory of mind: An understanding that others have their own thoughts and perspectives, which typically develops toward the end of this stage.

Concrete operational stage: The third stage of Piaget’s theory in which children develop logical thinking about concrete events and master conservation.

Formal operational stage: The final Piagetian stage characterized by the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.

Vygotsky’s view on cognitive development: Emphasizes the pivotal role of cultural context and social interactions in cognitive growth, including concepts such as scaffolding and the zone of proximal development.

Cognitive changes as we age: The ways cognitive abilities, such as fluid and crystallized intelligence, evolve throughout a person's life.

Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence: Fluid intelligence encompasses the capacity to solve new problems; crystallized intelligence refers to knowledge and skills acquired through life experiences.

Dementia: A decline in cognitive abilities severe enough to interfere with everyday functioning, often affecting memory and reasoning.

Ecological systems theory: Proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner; outlines the various environmental systems that influence human development:

• Microsystem: Immediate environments (family, school, peers).

• Mesosystem: Interconnections between microsystems.

• Exosystem: External environmental settings that indirectly affect development (parents’ workplaces).

• Macrosystem: Broad cultural and societal influences.

• Chronosystem: The dimension of time, encompassing changes and conditions over time in the environment.

Parenting styles: Various strategies parents use that impact child development, including:

• Authoritarian: High demand and low responsiveness.

• Authoritative: High demand and high responsiveness.

• Permissive: Low demand and high responsiveness.

Attachment styles: Patterns of emotional bonds between children and caregivers, classified as:

• Secure: Positive and trusting relationships.

• Insecure: Includes avoidant, anxious, and disorganized attachment styles reflecting insecurity in relationships.

Temperament & heredity, stability/change, attachment: Examination of how inherited traits influence behavior and how attachment styles may evolve over the lifespan.

Separation anxiety: Distress experienced by children when separated from their primary caregiver, commonly observed in early childhood.

Attachment — contact comfort vs. food (Harlow’s study): Harry Harlow's research demonstrated that infant monkeys preferred comfort from a soft surrogate mother over nourishment from a wire mother, emphasizing the importance of emotional security.

Parallel and pretend play with peers: Types of play in early childhood, where parallel play involves playing alongside peers without interaction, and pretend play involves imaginative interactions.

Adolescent thinking (peer influence): The evolution of cognitive processing during adolescence under the influence of peers, featuring concepts such as:

• Adolescent egocentrism: The heightened self-focus characteristic of adolescence.

• Imaginary audience: The belief that one is the center of others’ attention.

• Personal fable: The belief in one’s unique experiences and invulnerability.

Social clock: The expected timing of life events such as marriage and career changes according to cultural norms.

Emerging adulthood: A developmental stage between adolescence and adulthood characterized by exploration and independence in life choices.

Psychosocial stages (Erikson): Eight stages proposed by Erik Erikson, each with a specific conflict, generally occurring at certain ages:

• Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Developing a sense of security.

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): Gaining a sense of personal control over physical skills and independence.

• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Initiating activities and asserting control.

• Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years): Developing a sense of pride and competence through achievements.

• Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years): Exploring personal identity and sense of self.

• Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood): Forming intimate relationships with others.

• Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood): Contributing to society and helping guide future generations.

• Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood): Reflecting on life and feeling a sense of fulfillment or regret.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): Potentially traumatic experiences in childhood that can lead to long-lasting negative effects on health and behavior.

Identity Statuses (James Marcia): Categories reflecting how individuals manage their identity formation:

• Achievement: Commitment to identity after exploration.

• Diffusion: Lack of direction or commitment.

• Foreclosure: Commitment without exploration.

• Moratorium: Exploration without commitment.

Racial/ethnic identity: An individual’s sense of belonging to a particular racial or ethnic group.

Sexual orientation: An enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to individuals of the same or different gender.

Religious identity: The sense of belonging or affiliation with a particular religious group or belief system.

Occupational identity: The sense of self that develops through professional roles and experiences.

Familial identity: The identification and emotional connection to one’s family and the roles within familial dynamics.

Possible selves: Various potential identities or roles that individuals envision for themselves in the future.