AP Psychology MIDTERM

IPM

Information Processing model: a framework used by cognitive psychologists to explain and describe mental processes.

1\.) Encoding

2\.) Storage

3\.) Retrieval

Visual/Iconic Encoding

* Visual register holds all aspects of an image from the environment
* Images normally last 1/4 of a second in the visual register
* Visually encoding information increases the likelihood of long-term storage b/c it often requires more attention.

Auditory/Echoic Encoding

* Auditory register holds echos of sound from the environment
* Echos normally last 3-4 seconds in the auditory register

Sensory Memory

Unlimited but brief storage of external stimuli converted for cognitive processing

Explicit Memory

The conscious recollection of a previous episode, as in recall or recognition

Implicit Memory

Does not require the conscious or explicit recollection of past events or information, and the individual is unaware that remembering has occurred.

Flashbulb Memory

An accurate and exceptionally vivid long-lasting memory for the circumstances surrounding learning about a dramatic event.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to most effectively recall the first and last several items in a list

Mnemonic Devices

memory techniques that systematically change difficult to remember material into more easily remembered material

Semantic Encoding

A specific type of encoding in which the meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture, event) is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it.

Encoding Failure

A breakdown in the process of getting information in to the cognitive system

* Encoding failures can occur because of inattention to the target information or interference when the target information is presented

Storage Decay

How information stored in the brain gradually fades away

Interference

States that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another

Ebbinghaus, Forgetting Curve

Forgetting is extremely rapid immediately after the original learning and then levels off

Introspection

To access ones own mental states and/or processes.

Structuralism

All thought, behavior, emotion can only be understood by understanding the isolated “atoms of experience”\[Titchner\]

Functionalism

All thought, behavior, emotion can be understood by understanding it’s function and usefullness \[James\]

Behavioral

All thought, behavior, emotion is LEARNED \[Pavlov, Watson, Skinner\]

Cognitive

All thought, behavior, emotion can be understood by examining __mental processes__ such as memory, decision making, and language learning \[ Ebbinghaus + Loftus\]

Biological

All thought, behavior, emotion are influenced by anatomy and physiology (hormones, neurotransmitters) \[Sperry + Gazzaniga\]

Evolutionary

All thought, behavior, emotion are motivated by our need to SURVIVE both physically and genetically \[Buss\]

Psychoanalytic

All thought, behavior, emotion is motivated by the UNCONSCIOUS influences of __aggression__ and __sex__ \[Freud\]

Psychodynamic

All thought, behavior, emotion is motivated by the unconscious influenced by __childhood__ and other __past experiences__ \[Adler+Jung\]

Sociocultural

All thought, behavior, emotion are influenced by the socio-cultural contexts in which we operate \[Festinger + Ekman\]

Humanistic

All thought, behavior, emotion stems from our need to __thrive__ and __succeed__ \[Rogers + Maslow\]

Descriptive Statistics

Used to simplify & summarize

* **Mean**: Average of all data
* **Median**: Middle value
* **Mode**: Most frequently occurring value
* **Range**: Highest minus lowest value

Inferential Statistics

Manipulate data to determine the __meaning__ of the collected data & draw an appropriate conclusion

* **Standard Deviation**: to compare all data values to the mean (average) in order to determine the significance of outliers or make informed predictions
* **Statistical Significance**: used to determine the impact of an experiment - did the dependent variable change due to the researcher’s manipulation or random chance

\*ONLY APPLIES TO EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Descriptive Research Method

Descriptive research tells one what is happening, focuses on the who, what and where, not why and how. 

Provides research background knowledge and a starting point.

Correlational Research Method

A correlation is a statistical index used to represent the strength of a relationship between two factors, how much and in what way those factors vary, and how well one factor can predict the other. Using correlations does NOT provide you with cause and effect information; it will not tell you if one factor causes or is caused by the other.

Experimental Research Method

Experimental is the research method, we can expect a cause and effect relationship.

Naturalistic Observation Research Method

The researcher allows behavior to occur without interference or intervention at all. This is a great way to study behavior in "real settings" and to see behavior occur in its most natural state. The problem is that it's often difficult to study the behaviors you're most interested in without being intrusive.

Survey Research Method

A survey is a method for collecting information or data as reported by individuals. This is a type of data collection known as self-report data, which means that individuals complete the survey (or provide the information) themselves.

Case Study Research Method

A case study is one type of observational data collection technique in which one individual is studied in-depth in order to identify behavioral, emotional, and/or cognitive qualities that are universally true, on average, of others. Case studies often include face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil tests, and more.

Experiment Research Method

The investigator manipulates one or more independent variables (IV) to determine the effect(s) on some behavior (the dependent variable) while controlling other relevant factors. There are two types of experiments, the true experiment and the quasi experiment.

 Hypothesis

A tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between two (or more) events or variables

Operational Definition

A term that is used to describe the procedure of a study and the research variables

Dependent Variable

The variable that measures the outcome of the experiment

Independent Variable

The characteristic of an experiment that is manipulated or changed by researchers, not by other variables in the experiment

Confounding Variable

A variable that the experimenter did not account for initially that affected the dependent variable.

Ethical Guidelines

1. Informed Consent
2. Right to withdrawal
3. Right to maintain confidentiality
4. DO NOT HARM
5. Debrief patients

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by other stimulus - Pavlov’s dog experiment

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (EXTERNAL)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning (INTERNAL)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response (EXTERNAL)

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs b/c of previous conditioning (INTERNAL)

Generalization

The tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli

Discrimination

The unfair or prejudicial treatment of people and groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, or sexual orientation

Pairing

The learning or conditioning process during which both stimuli (UCS & CS) are presented together to elicit the same response

Opperant Conditioning

A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences \[Skinner\]

Reinforcement

Consequence issued to encourage or increase a desired behavior

Punishment

Consequence issued to discourage or eliminate a behavior

Positive

The consequence involves the learner getting something in exchange for a desired behavior

Negative

The consequence involves the learner losing something in exchange for a desired behavior

Shaping

The process of training a learned behavior that would not normally occur

Schedules of Reinforcement

Patterns that define how often reinforcement will occur for a desired behavior

Observational & Social Cognitive Learning

Type of learning that relies on the learner’s conscious awareness and processing

Latent Learning

Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs

Insight

The clear and often sudden discernment of a solution to a problem by means that are not obvious and may never become so, even after one has tried hard to work out how one has arrived at the solution.

Self-Efficacy

Your ability to have confidence in completing a task

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by internal factors such as enjoyment and satisfaction

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by an external reward or punishment

Problem-Solving

Refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable

Algorithms

A defined set of step-by-step procedures that provides the correct answer to a particular problem

Heuristics

A general rule based on our experience that we use to judge and make decisions.

Means-End Analysis

A problem solving method in which the problem is broken down into sub goals, and each step to solve the problem to move closer to the solution

Analogies

A similarity between two entities in certain limited respects

Biases

Attention to information that confirms our beliefs/expectations, ignoring information that contradicts them.

 Functional Fixedness

A tendency to only think of an object's most common use

Mental Set

An obstacle to problem solving which involves fixating only on solutions that have worked in the past

Neuron

Are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information

Soma

Or cell body that contains the nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells (soma is greek for body)

Dendrites

Are parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information

Axon

Is a long thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin

is insulating material that encases some axons

Synapse

Is a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another

Gila

Are cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons

Sympathetic Division

Is the branch of the ANS that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies

Parasympathetic Division

Is the branch of the ANS that generally conserves bodily resources

Split Brain Surgery

The bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures

Neurotransmitters

A specialized chemical messenger which sends signals between neurons

Sympathetic NS

Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic NS

Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy

Corpus Callosum

* The major structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
* Key to COMMUNICATION

Cross-lateralization

Hand, eye, foot, or ear dominance are not uniformly right- or left-sided.

Hindbrain

Medulla:

* Lower part of the brain stem
* Attaches to the spinal cord
* Controls unconscious but essential functions, like breathing and circulation
* Damage can occur due to physical injuries, overdoses of drugs, strokes, and what the person was born with

Pons:

* Located above the medulla
* *Bridge* of fibers that connects the cerebellum to the brain stem
* Involved with sleep and arousal (circadian rhythms)
* Sensations and motor skills of primarily the head and neck

Cerebellum:

* Adjacent to the back surface of brainstem
* Coordination of movement and balance of equilibrium & implicit memory storage
* Involved in higher-order functions
* Damage causes disruption of fine motor skills

Broca’s Area

* The Broca's Area is located in the frontal lobe of the brain and acts as the speech center.
* When the Broca’s Area is not working, issues may include;
* Difficulties with formulating __**speech**__ and written word
* Repetitive speech
* Non-coherent sentences

Wernicke’s Area

* Part of the brain dependent on the __**development**__ of language (located on the left side of the brain in the temporal lobe).
* Deals with the __**comprehension**__ of language rather than the speaking of a language.
* When the Wernicke’s Area is not working, issues may include;

*Speaking* fluently but having difficulty *understanding* language

Hippocampus

* The Hippocampus organizes and stores memories, especially memories relating to facts and events (EXPLICIT)
* Assists in spatial navigation and encoding the environment around us
* Damage to the hippocampus can result in memory loss, inability to recall words, directions, locations, new information, and loss of ability to form new memories 

Alzheimer's is thought to be connected to the hippocampus

**Amygdala**

* The main job of the Amygdala is to regulate emotions. (ex.  fear and aggression)
* Assess environmental threats (emotional importance of sensory information) 
* Plays a key role in tying an emotional meaning to memories 
* Damage to the amygdala may result in trouble forming memories &/or emotional regulation

Mental health disorders associated with the amygdala are OCD, anxiety, PTSD, and is related to all phobias

Thalamus

* FILTERS all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex
* Made up of clusters of cell bodies (somas)

Issues/Disorders: 

* Memory loss
* Lack of enthusiasm
* Loss of language understanding

Hypothalamus

* involved in the regulation of basic biological needs (aka drives)
* “Four Fs”- fighting, fleeing, feeding, and mating
* Located under the thalamus 
* Controls the autonomic nervous system & interacts directly with the endocrine system

Issues/Disorders:

* Eating disorders: hypothalamus plays a role in appetite
* Insomnia

Frontal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex at the front of the brain. (behind the forehead)
Necessary for :

* Motor control (voluntary movement)
* Speech
* Problem-solving
* Thought & attention
* Personality traits

Temporal Lobe

* Located near the temples, below the parietal lobe
* Second largest lobe of the cerebrum
* Each lobe controls hearing in  opposite ear
* Processing Auditory information
* Encoding information 
* Involved in memory, language, emotion, hearing, face and object recognition
* The left lobe: language comprehension, learning, and memorizing.
* The right lobe: memorizing non-verbal information

Parietal Lobe

* A region of the cerebral cortex whose function includes processing information about touch, temperature, pressure, & spatial awareness
* Involved in processing and regulating responses to pain.

Occipital Lobe

Purpose = Processes VISION

* Stimulus recognition 
* Size, distance, and depth perception
* Color assessment

Endocrine system

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system;

a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Endocrine System Functions

* Controlled by the Hypothalamus
* Helps coordinate and integrate complex psychological reactions
* Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream. It is much slower than the nervous system.

Hormones are chemical substances (similar in function to neurotransmitters) that help regulate bodily activities.

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**Pituitary gland**

The pituitary gland is the endocrine system’s most influential gland.

The hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to regulate growth and control other endocrine glands.

The hypothalamus is part of both the CNS *and* the endocrine system.

* Influences blood pressure, thirst, contractions of the uterus during childbirth, sexual behavior and interest, body growth etc. 

It also produces growth hormone (especially during sleep) and oxytocin, the “bonding” hormone.

Pineal gland

* Secretes melatonin which regulates the sleep-wake cycle

Disturbances in melatonin are responsible for “jet lag”