The French Revolution(s)

The French revolution

Movement in France between 1789 and 1799 that overthrew the ancient régime. Series of events which who’s ideas and values associated with liberal democracy, nationalism and the rise of socialism.

Ancien régime

The political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Characterised by an absolute monarchy- the king had all the rights and was believed to be chosen by God. There was an arbitrary rule, which meant that the law was based on individual discretion and personal whim rather than on reason and established law. Society was organised in three orders: The clergy, the nobility and the third estates (the rest of the population). The first estate of the Clergy was made up of Church officials (1% of the population). It was often described as “a state within a state” due to the political powers of the Catholic Church. The clergy can be divided into upper clergy (bishops, abbots- from noble families) and the lower clergy (parish priests- closer to common people). They were important to society as they organised schools and hospitals, but they had privileges such as taxations to the church. The second estate consists of the nobility (2-3% of the population), who owned a third of the land. The nobility had high positions in the army, government and court, as well as being patrons for art and culture. Even though they made a lot of money, they did not have to pay taxes.The third estate were made up of commoners (97% of the population) (bourgeoisie, urban workers, peasants). They had little political power, faced rising food prices and poverty, had to pay the majority of the taxes. This organisation of society caused a lot of tensions due to the huge inequality between the privileged and the non-privileged. The third estate carried the financial burden of the state- growing resentment led to French Revolution.

Origins/causes for the revolution

Severe economical distress- There was an increase in the cost of living, the average family had to spend 80-90% of their income on food. Prices were rising after poor harvest of 1789. This increase in costs of living triggered unrest. Additionally, the heavy taxation on the third estate in contrast to the criticism of royal spending- ex. Marie Antoinette. France was in an awful national dept at the time after the wars of the 1750s as well as funding the American Revolution. The American Revolution served as an inspiration to French people, enlightenment ideas could be put into practice and that change was possible. Enlightenment thinkers in France challenged the government, advocating for natural rights, popular sovereignty and separation of powers in response to an absolute monarchy, failing to represent the people.

The American Revolutionary war (1775-83)

Served as an example to European observers. Example where the people won over their oppressors- the British crown, formed United States of America, independent state. 13 of the British colonies fight for independence. This gave proof to the enlightenment ideas of that a better world was possible through reason. Showed that tyranny could be challenged. Using reason to find solutions. Established that man did have inalienable rights. Example of that citizens following reason could unite to exercise control over their own lives and choose their own form of government codified by the force of a written constitution. Ideals of liberty, equality, private property and representative government were possible. The American Revolution inspired the sense of a new era, made the conception of progress seem real and attainable, gave a new dimension to ideas of liberty and equality of the Enlightenment, got people into the habit of thinking more concretely about political questions, made them more readily critical of their own government and societies. The American Revolution dethroned England and set up America as a mode for those seeking a better world. It made certain ideas already familiar in Europe seem more universal, and confirmed the habit of thinking in terms of humanity at large- universality of human experience. It introduced written conventions into political action.

Ideas of Enlightenment

17th and 18th century. Different enlightenments in Europe, ex. French and British enlightenment with different approaches. 2 phases: scientific revolution and the enlightenment. Some ideas generalised in the 18th century were liberty (human rights/natural rights), the emergence of a secular culture (less dominance of the church), sovereignty of the people (power comes from people not from divine rights), Equality before the law (citizens should not be subject to arbitrary rule), economic freedom (Opposition to strict state control), Property rights (strong defence of private property as a natural right). In 1789- these ideas were enshrined in the Declaration of human rights. Important to note that few philosophers advocated for the violent overthrow of the existing order of things because violence was contrary to human reason. Rather philosophers attack on established order and authority lead to the development of a revolutionary mentality. The propaganda of the philosophers created the preliminary condition of the French Revolution, namely the discontent with the existing state of things.

Triggering causes

Le serment du jeu de Paume, 20th June 1789: To solve the financial crisis, the King Louis XVI gathered the three estates in Versailles. The third estate hoped to reform, but were quickly disappointed and refused to submit to royal authority. Refusing to meet and vote by order, they joined with some deputies from the clergy and the nobility and formally declared themselves the National Assembly. The King attempted to oppose this assembly by closing the meeting hall, causing the deputies to move to the tennis court (Jeu de paume) and pledged not to separate before a constitution was to be established. this was the first victory of democratic power over absolutist monarchy and was a symbolic stage in the destruction of absolutism. Could be argued to mark the start of the revolution weeks before the Bastille.

La prise de la Bastille, 14th July 1789: Fears that Louis XVI was to arrest the newly formed national assembly led a crowd of Parisians to besiege (surround) the Bastille, a fortress that was used as a prison. The fear of the King using military power over the people rose. To protect themselves, people gathered weapons and marched towards the Bastille, a symbol of the tyranny. The victory marked an important stage in the revolution.

La grande peur

After these events in Paris (Bastille), the fear of the monarchy spread to the French countryside. People were afraid of the nobility seeking revenge for these actions. It lead to a panic, where people reacted by burning down castles, as well as killing nobles. To put an end to the chaos, the National Assembly met on the 4th of August 1789 where the parliamentarians swore to renounce all their privileges. Decided to eliminate the nodal and clerical privileges, the fundamental principle of French society since the Middle Ages. An attempt to calm down the population and the restlessness in Paris. The settlement marked the end of the feudal system in France (the three estates).

Déclaration des Droits de l´Homme et du citoyen, 26 August 1789

This declaration is one of the most important documents from the French Revolution and served as a fundament for the new France. The document was written as a way to reassure the people of the direction of the Revolution. Defined that these are your rights and this is the way forward. The declaration made the foundation of that from now on the taxes should be distributed equally. The declaration consists of 17 articles that define the individual and collective rights for all citizens. The document abolished the old order, abolishing absolutism, hereditary privileges, as well as arbitrary application of justice. It guarantees principles such as freedom of conscience, freedom of speech, right of property. The declaration proclaimed the Assembly´s commitment to replace the AR with a system based on opportunity, freedom of speech, popular sovereignty and representative government. It was France´s first written constitution which established a constitutional monarchy (the king´s power limited by the law).

 

From monarchy to 1st republic

La fuite de Varennes, june, 1791: A determining event which changed the direction of the revolution from reform to radicalisation. The escape of the monarchy: King Louis XVI and his family attempts to flea Paris in disguise to seek protection with loyal troops at the border. The plan to seek support (particularly from Austria) and create a counterrevolution. In Varennes, the king is recognised and arrested, taken back to Paris. This event showed the people that the king could not be trusted, and that he actively worked against the new constitution. This motivated radicals who wanted to abolish the monarchy. As a direct consequence to the king´s betrayal, the 1st French Republic is declares in September 1792, a new calendar was installed to mark a new start.

Execution of the King 1793

The execution of the King marked the end of the old France. Executed by the guillotine at Place de la Concorde. After the king´s death, France faced an economic crisis. Additionally, the execution split the nation between those who celebrated the execution and those who who were deeply shocked.

Sans-culottes

The sans-culottes were radical working-class militants and supporters of the French Revolution. Driving force of the revolution. The workers wore long pants, whereas the nobility wore culottes (hence the name). They demanded democracy, lower food prices, and were the ones who drove forward the most violent parts of the revolution. The combination of the economic crisis after the kings death and the pressure from the “sans-culottes” created a tense political climate. This chaos was used as a justification for the instalment of the Terror shortly after to protect the revolution against external enemies and internal chaos.

Le régime de la Terreur (1793/94)

After the execution of the king, the French republic was in an existential crisis. France was at war with Europe, there were civil wars in the provinces (Vendée), and the economy was falling. To prevent the Revolution from collapsing, the welfare committee (Comité de salut public) was established with Maximilien Robespierre as the leading figure. Robespierre and the Jacobins believed that terror was the only way to save the “deed” (revolutionary ideals). The goal was to extinguish all enemies of the revolution. The guillotine became the symbol of the period. The terror managed to gather the country military , but to an enormous human cost. Eventually, Robespierre´s own people turned against him as the terror became too overpowering. The terror ended in 1794 with the “Thermidor-reaction”, where Robespierre himself was arrested and executed by the guillotine.

Results of the revolution

The revolution drastically changed French society by shifting power from the traditional elite to new societal orders.

The losers: The nobility lost their feudal rights, property and stable income. Their social status was permanently weakened. The churches property became national, the state stopped paying the church, marked the end of the church´s economic independence. The working class- even though they fought the revolution,, they still had limited economic and political freedom, as well as the slowing down of the process of industrialisation.

The winners: The bourgeoisie was the biggest winner. They bought up the property of the nobility and the clergy, made investments and would be the governing class of the 19th and 20th century. The peasantry were emancipated and became landowners. they were no longer subjected to feudal dues. The emergence of a new class of “civil servants”- the one´s who were to administer the state.

Politcal results

France was administratively reorganised to break with the feudal order. There was a unification of the many regional “circonscriptions” of the AR, unified into departements. Electoral assemblies were set up in each Département and inhabitants of the area voted for their representatives. Representatives of the State were appointed in each Département by the revolutionary government until the end of the Terror.

the revolution also created the fundament unification through instalment of a unified language (French), Common weights and measure systems, as well as a common legal system, the law replacing arbitrary decisions.

Equality before the law was installed, meritocracy in public and civil service appointments (rulers chosen for their abilities rather than wealth and family), as well as obligation of all to pay taxes. A new nationalism was forged though voluntary military service and conscription (verneplikt).

the revolution created the foundation for a modern democracy but had its limitations. New procedures of public and political debate were established as well as the emergence of a national press. The beginning of political parties. First steps towards the separation of Church from State. But: the exercise of political rights continues to be linked to wealth and property (censitary suffrage- right to vote based on property ownership and wealth). Women were excluded from political process until 1944. Slavery was not abolished until 1848. “Le Chapelier” law, banned organisation (workers guilds) and the right to strike.