Identity and Personality

Self-concept

Refers to perception of oneself as an individual and as a member of various social groups. An assessment of oneself based on such factors as sexuality, racial identity, socioeconomic status, and gender.

Self-schemas

Largely universal characteristics such as sexuality, racial identity, socioeconomic status, and gender.

Identity

Each individual’s unique expansion upon his or her self-concept. Formulated as one assesses and assigns meaning to one’s self-concept. Encompasses that person’s myriad values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses, which are all heavily influenced by environment.

Looking-glass self

Continually evaluate others’ reactions to our conduct and adjust our beliefs, values and behavior to reflect other people’s judgements.

Social identity

The aspect of a person’s identity that includes the groups with which they associate.

Social identity theory

Suggests that group membership provides one with self-esteem, belongingness, and validation.

In-group/out-group bias

Reflects humans’ innate tendency to favor those similar to them.

Self-esteem

Individuals’ perception of their overall value, purpose, and ability, and how they emotionally respond to this self-appraisal.

Self-efficacy

defined as a person’a sense that they have the tools and the ability to cope with the events of their life.

Locus of control

Refers to individuals’ perceptions of whether the events of their life are controlled by their own inner resources (internal) or by circumstances outside of their control (external locus of control).

Individuation

The establishment of the characteristics that distinguish a person from other individuals and social groups.

Libido

Inherent sexual drive

Id

The wellspring of an individual’s subconscious, primal desires.

Freud’s theory of psychosexual development

An individual’s personality develops in five distinct stages that focus on a particular erogenous zone in the body, where it is crucial for the individual to learn to regulate the id through the development of ego (social norms) and superego (morals/values).

Oral Stage

First of Freud’s stages, birth-18 months, erogenous zone is the mouth, an infant is entirely driven by instinct and receives sustenance, comfort, and stimulation through the mouth.

Anal Stage

Second of Freud’s stages, 18 months-3 years, erogenous zone is anus, during this stage, a child faces the task of toilet training, which involves redirecting the impulses of the id by learning to control bodily functions.

Anal-retentive personality

Characterized by anxiety, obsessiveness, and preoccupation with sanitation.

Anal-expulsive personality

Featuring poor self-control, carelessness, and sloppy hygiene.

Phallic Stage

Third of Freud’s stages, 3-6 years, erogenous zone is genitalia. Through observation, children discern the physical difference between boys and girls.

Oedipus complex

Young boys were unconsciously sexually attracted to their mothers, creating both internal conflict and a rivalry with their same-sex parent.

Electra complex

Where young girls were unconsciously sexually attracted to their fathers, rooted in penis envy.

Penis envy

The feelings of inadequacy that result from lacking a penis.

Latency Stage

Fourth stage of Freud’s theory, 6 years to puberty, libido is inactive, sexual drive recedes for a period of time while social relationships are cultivated and interests are explored.

Genital Stage

Fifth stage of Freud’s theory, puberty onward, erogenous zone is genitalia, interest and desire for members of the opposite sex develops with the onset of sexual maturity at puberty. Individuals explore sexual relationships, identity, and accountability.

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

Proposed that human development was more heavily influenced by social interaction than by sexuality, extends beyond adolescence and that personal development continues throughout the lifetime.

Ego identity

Fundamental awareness of who we are as individuals.

Trust versus Mistrust

First stage of Erikson’s theory, birth-18 months, infant develops either basic trust or mistrust in others depending on the quality of care and nurturance received by caregivers.

Autonomy versus Shame

Erikson’s second stage, 18 months-3 years, characterized by curiosity and experimentation, children begin to investigate their world and attempt new behaviors.

Initiative versus Guilt

Erikson’s third stage, 3-5 years, children begin to take deliberate action to achieve goals, there is a marked effort to manipulate their environment and exert their will. Children experience guilt as they analyze the effects of their behavior and receive reward or punishment from others.

Industry versus Inferiority

Erikson’s fourth stage, 5-12 years, school-aged children gradually become less focused on play-based learning and devote their energy to formal education. Concentration on both acquiring complex concepts and sharpening their abilities.

Identity versus Role Confusion

Erikson’s fifth stage, 13-19 years, during adolescence, children experiment with individuality and determine how to function in accordance with the behavioral and social standards of their culture.

Identity crisis

Characterized by experimentation with authority, sexuality, boundaries and obligations.

Intimacy versus Isolation

Erikson’s sixth stage, 20-39 years, ideally, adolescent experimentation recedes and individuals begin to seek fulfillment from their relationships with others. Friendships coalesce and romantic relationships deepen.

Generativity versus stagnation

Erikson’s seventh stage, 40-65 years, focus in middle adulthood is the desire to contribute in a meaningful way to society, work, and family in order to ensure stability for future generations.

Ego Integrity versus Despair

Erikson’s eighth stage, 65 years-death, final stage of life is devoted to reflection upon the quality and impact of one’s life.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

Contends that sociocultural factors largely determine the direction of personality development and knowledge acquisition. Most significant influence upon both personality and cognitive ability is a child’s social interaction with parents, teachers, and other more experienced adults.

Tools of intellectual adaptation

Each culture has distinct beliefs and practices concerning the most adaptive way to use one’s intellectual abilities, determine both the skills and values children learn and how they interpret this information.

Zone of proximal development

Defined as the assortment of concepts or skills that a child cannot complete on his or her own, but can accomplish with instruction and assistance from a more knowledgeable other.

Scaffolding

The process by which an instructor continually adapts the level of support and guidance offered to best suit the abilities of the learner and to encourage mastery of a task.

Private speech

The internal dialogue that all individuals use to moderate their behavior.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Felt that the underlying moral rationale for.a decision was far more crucial in understanding an individual’s moral maturity, also theorized that moral development proceeds through fixed stages that do not conclude with adolescence.

Preconventional morality

First level of Kohlberg’s theory, at this level, children judge behavior according to reward or punishment, rules of behavior are established by parents or other authority figures.

Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Stage one of Kohlberg’s theory, if a beheavior results in negative consequences, a child learns that it is wrong and should be avoided. the severity of a consequence determines how negatively the child judges that behavior.

Naive hedonism

Second stage of Kohlberg’s theory, behavior is motivated by personal desire for reward or validation. Although another person may also inadvertently benefit, general concern for the welfare of others remains limited and secondary to one’s own.

Conventional Morality

Second level of Kohlberg’s theory, during this level, adolescents and adults behave in accordance with social norms to gain acceptance, objective is to avoid blame or rejection while fostering personal relationships.

“Good boy”/”good girl” orientation

Third stage of Kohlberg’s theory, an individual focuses on being accepted and valued by others, primary objective is to be considered a “good person”, opinions of others are highly influential.

Social-order morality

Fourth stage of Kohlberg’s theory, moral dilemmas are resolved through strict interpretation of laws and social regulations, rules are considered sacred and essential to the perseverance of human society.

Postconventional Morality

Third level in Kohlberg’s theory, individuals interpret laws and social norms from a more subjective, philosophical angle. Individuals consider human rights, personal ideals, and integrity when determining right or wrong behavior.

Social Contract Orientation

Individuals adhere to laws that relfect the democratic principle of majority rule. Laws should be challenged and amended if they fail to offer universal justice or otherwise disadvantage others.

Morality of Individual principles of conscience

Sixth stage of Kohlberg’s theory, the final and most idealistic stage is also virtually impossible to attain, at this level, individuals are guided exclusively by their conscience and desire for justice.

Deferred imitation

The ability to replicate observed behavior from memory.

Reference group

A reference group is any social group that serves as a model to an individual for standards of self-esteem, goals, experiences, accomplishments, ideals, and values.

Socialization

The process by which individuals learn the cultural norms of their particular social environment.

Psychoanalytic theory

Apsychological framework that defines moral behavior as the internalization of cultural norms and values through parental identification, ultimately leading to the development of the superego and the resolution of the Oedipal conflict.

Humanistic theory

Based on the idea that people are inherently good, have almost limitless potential, and are self-motivated to improve, emphasizes the role of the individual and gives people more credit for controlling their mental health. It also rejects the idea of biological determinism. 

Biological theory

considers physiology, biochemistry, and evolution in relation to human behavior.

Behavioral theory

that focuses on how people learn through their interactions with the environment.

Trait theory

studies human personality by identifying and measuring stable characteristics, or traits, that cause people to behave consistently