APUSH Period 5 Part 1 Key Terms and Proper Nouns

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Manifest Destiny

19th-century belief that the United States was divinely destined to expand across the North American continent, spreading its civilization and democracy. This ideology was used to justify territorial expansion through policies like the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of the Oregon Territory, leading to the Mexican-American War and the displacement of Native American tribes. It also intensified regional tensions between the North and South as new territories were acquired, exacerbating sectionalism which resulted in increased polarization that would culminate in the Civil War.

Sam Houston

A prominent American soldier and politician, best known for his role in leading Texas to independence from Mexico and serving as the first President of the Republic of Texas. His leadership during the Texas Revolution, particularly at the Battle of San Jacinto, was crucial in securing Texas’ autonomy, which later influenced the broader context of the Mexican–American War.

Election of 1844

U.S. presidential election where the Democratic candidate, James K. Polk, narrowly defeated the Whig candidate, Henry Clay. The election was dominated by the issue of Manifest Destiny, with Polk's platform advocating for the expansion of U.S. territory, including the annexation of Texas and the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute with Britain, while Clay was more cautious on the issue of Texas. Polk's victory solidified his presidency and paved the way for westward expansion, the Mexican-American War, and the acquisition of significant new territories.

James K. Polk

11th President of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849. He is best known for his strong embodiment of Manifest Destiny through his aggressive expansionist policies aimed at increasing U.S. territories. Polk's presidency significantly shaped the territorial boundaries of the United States through territorial acquisitions and military conflicts (Mexican-American War and Oregon negotiations). 

“Fifty-four Forty or Fight!” (54° 40' or fight!)

A slogan used during the 1844 presidential campaign, advocating for the U.S. to claim the entire Oregon Territory up to latitude 54° 40'. This phrase reflects the heightened tensions between the United States and Great Britain over territorial disputes in the Pacific Northwest, illustrating the spirit of expansionism that characterized the era of Manifest Destiny

General Zachary Taylor

National hero from the Mexican-American War whose military victories at battles like Palo Alto and Buena Vista helped fuel public support for westward expansion. His fame led to his election as the 12th President (1849-1850), during which his presidency was defined by tensions over the expansion of slavery into new territories. Despite being a slave owner himself, Taylor, in a move that angered Southerners, initially advocated for California to be admitted as a free state.

John C. Fremont

American explorer, military officer, and politician known for his expeditions in the western United States during the mid-1800s. He played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States, particularly during the Oregon Trail era, where his explorations encouraged many settlers to migrate westward in search of land and opportunity. His detailed reports highlighted the opportunities for agriculture and land ownership available in the West, making it more appealing for settlers to migrate.

Mexican Cession/Treaty of Guadelupe-Hidalgo

The territory Mexico ceded to the U.S. due to this treaty, which ended the Mexican-American War in 1848. he treaty resulted in the U.S. gaining vast lands, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming, for which the U.S. paid Mexico $15 million. This acquisition fueled the debate over whether the new territories would be free or slave states, intensifying sectional tensions that contributed to the Civil War.

Wilmot Proviso

1846 proposal to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico during the Mexican-American War. Proposed by Pennsylvania Representative David Wilmot, it passed the House but failed in the Senate. It intensified sectional tensions between the North and South and reopened the national debate over the expansion of slavery, a key cause of the Civil War.

Ostend Manifesto

1854 document drafted by American diplomats arguing that the United States should seize Cuba from Spain, either by purchase or by force, to expand slave territory. It was a controversial policy proposal that revealed the aggressive expansionist goals of pro-slavery factions and intensified sectional tensions between the North and South in the years leading up to the Civil War. 

Gadsden Purchase

1854 agreement in which the United States acquired a 29,670 square mile region from Mexico, located in present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico. This land acquisition was significant as it aimed to facilitate a southern transcontinental railroad route and marked the final territorial acquisition of the United States. The purchase demonstrated how territorial expansion was seen as a means to achieve national progress and prosperity.

Free-Soil Movement (Party)

A short-lived political party in the United States that emerged in the late 1840s, primarily focused on opposing the expansion of slavery into the western territories. Formed by discontented members of the Democratic and Whig parties, it advocated for free soil for free men, emphasizing that slavery should not extend into new lands acquired during the Mexican-American War because slavery would threaten free labor and undermine economic opportunities for whites. The party played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape during a time of growing sectional tensions over slavery. Its principles were adopted by the emerging Republican Party, which sought to unify various factions opposed to slavery. The party's focus on free soil underscored a growing belief that American democracy should prioritize liberty over oppression, influencing debates around civil rights leading into the Civil War.

Popular sovereignty

A political doctrine that allowed residents of a U.S. territory to decide for themselves whether to permit or prohibit slavery. This concept, which gained prominence with the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, was promoted as a democratic compromise but led to violence and conflict, particularly in "Bleeding Kansas".

Compromise of 1850

A set of legislative measures aimed at easing tensions between free and slave states after the Mexican-American War. It admitted California as a free state while allowing other territories to decide on slavery through popular sovereignty. Additionally, it included a stricter Fugitive Slave Act to appease Southern interests. This approach sought to maintain peace temporarily, though it ultimately highlighted deeper divisions.

Nativists/nativism

Political and social ideology that favors the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants. This concept often emerges in response to significant immigration waves, leading to a preference for established residents and a suspicion or hostility toward newcomers. Groups argued that immigrants posed economic threats by taking jobs from native-born Americans and undermining wages. They also claimed that immigrants were responsible for social issues such as crime and poverty. Furthermore, these groups felt that new arrivals couldn’t assimilate into American culture, leading to fears about national identity being diluted. 

“Know-Nothing” Party

A political organization that emerged in the 1850s, primarily advocating for nativist policies and opposition to immigration, particularly from Catholics. The party gained significant attention during a time of growing sectional conflict, reflecting the anxieties of native-born Americans about the influx of immigrants and their perceived impact on American society and politics. It played a notable role in the political landscape of the era, as it intertwined issues of nationalism and xenophobia with the broader sectional tensions over slavery and state rights.

Fugitive Slave Law (1850)

Law passed as part of the Compromise of 1850 that required the return of escaped slaves to their owners and penalized those who helped them. It intensified sectional conflict because it mandated Northern cooperation in capturing fugitives and increased fear among African Americans, including free Blacks. This law required federal officials to find and return runaway slaves to their owners, and imposed fines on anyone who helped them escape.

Underground Railroad

A secret network of routes and safe houses that helped enslaved African Americans escape to free states and Canada in the 19th century. This system involved a variety of individuals, including abolitionists, sympathizers, and former slaves, who provided assistance and shelter. It played a crucial role in heightening sectional conflict by challenging slavery and igniting passionate responses from abolitionists and pro-slavery advocates, and was instrumental in the fight against slavery, shaping the lives of African Americans in the early republic and influencing the broader context of social justice movements.

Harriet Tubman

African American abolitionist and political activist born into slavery around 1822. She is best known for her role as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, where she led hundreds of enslaved people to freedom, and she also fought for women's suffrage later in her life. Her courageous efforts challenged the plantation system and inspired many to resist the oppression of slavery.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin/Harriet Beecher Stowe

Novel by this person that depicted the brutalities of slavery, awakening the abolitionist movement and increasing tensions that led to the Civil War. The novel, written in response to the Fugitive Slave Act, humanized enslaved people, especially in the North, and highlighted the moral corruption of slavery through personal stories. Its publication made it one of the best-selling books of the 19th century and a foundational text for the growing anti-slavery sentiment, influencing public opinion and political action against the institution. . This person was born into a religious family with strong anti-slavery beliefs.

Impending Crisis of the South

A significant anti-slavery book written by Hinton Rowan Helper in 1857, arguing that slavery was economically detrimental to the Southern states and posed a threat to the social structure. The book aimed to persuade non-slaveholding whites to oppose slavery by highlighting its negative impacts on their economic interests and social progress, thus fueling sectional conflict leading up to the Civil War.

“Positive Good” Argument

A pro-slavery ideology that asserted slavery was not a "necessary evil" but a beneficial institution for both enslaved people and society. Proponents, particularly in the South, used paternalistic, economic, and religious justifications to argue that slavery provided enslaved people with civilization, Christianity, and care, while benefiting the Southern economy and social order. Figures like John C. Calhoun were key proponents, arguing it was a positive gift to America and essential for Southern prosperity.

George Fitzhugh

19th-century pro-slavery advocate and social theorist known for arguing that slavery was a positive good and superior to the free labor system in the North. He wrote works like Sociology for the South and Cannibals All!, where he claimed enslaved people were better cared for than wage-earning factory workers. His ideas were a major part of the Southern defense of slavery against growing abolitionist criticism.

The Alamo

A historic site located in San Antonio, Texas, known for the pivotal battle that took place there in 1836 during the Texas Revolution. It became a symbol of resistance and sacrifice when a small group of Texan defenders, including notable figures like James Bowie and Davy Crockett, fought against a much larger Mexican army led by General Santa Anna. The fall of the Alamo awakened Texan forces and fueled the fight for independence from Mexico, playing a significant role in the events leading up to the Mexican-American War.