AP Gov. Unit 1 Terms

Block Grant

A sum of federal money given to states for broad programs. Ex: social services, public health

Categorical Grant

Federal funding for specific, narrowly defined purposes.

Checks + Balances

A system where the branches check on each other. (power balance)

Concurrent Powers

Government authorities shared by both the federal and state governments.

Cooperative Federalism

A system where federal and state governments share power and work together to implement policies.

Devolution

Transfer of power to a lower level of local administration by the central government.

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote on laws and policies, not representatives.

Dual Federalism

A system where federal and state governments have distinct separate and sovereign powers.

Elitism

Elites hold disproportionate power over political decisions.

Enumerated powers

Explicit powers granted to the US federal government. Includes: taxes, commerce, declaring war, etc.

Ex post facto law

A law that imposes criminal liability or increases criminal punishment retroactively.

Federalism

A power constitutionally divided between the central government and the regional government.

Federalist Papers

Essays written by Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the fake name “Publius” explain the Constitution.

Fiscal Federalism

the pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants-in-aid by the federal government to state and local governments

Full Faith & Credit Clause (Article 4)

requires states to recognize and respect the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings (e.g., marriages, contracts, court judgments) of every other state

Gibbons v. Ogden (& Commerce Clause)

New York granted Person 1 a monopoly for steamboat navigation. Person 2 held a federal license to operate in the same waters, leading to a conflict between state and federal authority.

The Supreme Court held that Congress has exclusive authority over the states to regulate interstate commerce through the commerce clause.

Great Compromise

Agreement at the constitutional convention creating a bicameral legislature (two houses) to balance large and small states: the House of Representatives with representation based on population (proportional) and the Senate with equal representation for all states (two senators each)

Implied Powers

those not explicitly listed in the Constitution but are inferred as necessary for the federal government (especially Congress) to carry out its enumerated powers, primarily derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause

Judicial Review

the Supreme Court's power to declare legislative acts (laws) or executive actions unconstitutional

Limited Government

the principle that government power is restricted by law (like a constitution) to protect individual rights, ensuring rulers can't infringe on freedoms by operating within specific, defined boundaries set by the people, preventing tyranny

McCulloch v. Maryland (& the Necessary & Proper Clause)

In 1818, a state imposed a tax on the Second Bank of the United States. The bank's cashier refused to pay, leading to a legal battle.

The Court ruled that Congress had the authority to establish a national bank, even though it was not explicitly authorized in the Constitution (through the necessary and proper clause), and that states could not tax federal institutions. 

Natural Rights

fundamental, inherent rights (like life, liberty, property/pursuit of happiness) that all humans possess simply by being born, not granted by government, and which governments are instituted to protect; if they fail, people can alter or abolish them

New Jersey Plan

was a proposal at the 1787 Constitutional Convention by William Paterson, favoring small states with a unicameral legislature (one house) where each state had equal representation, ensuring small states weren't overpowered by larger ones. resulted in the great compromise

Pluralism

the theory that power in a democracy is distributed among many competing interest groups, ensuring no single group dominates and allowing diverse voices (like unions, businesses, advocacy groups) to influence policy through competition, negotiation, and compromise

Popular Sovereignty

the government's power comes from the people (consent of the governed), making citizens the ultimate source of authority, expressed through voting, representation, and the ability to alter or abolish government

Privileges & Immunities Clause (Article 4)

prevents states from discriminating against citizens of other states, ensuring they receive the same fundamental rights (e.g., travel, property ownership, court access) as residents

Republicanism

the ideology that government should be based on the consent of the governed, with citizens electing representatives to make laws, emphasizing civic virtue, individual rights, and the common good

Reserved Powers (10th Amendment… Examples)

political powers not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, which are reserved for state governments or the people. These powers, a core pillar of federalism, allow states to manage their own affairs, including police powers (safety/health), education, and local elections. 

Separation of Powers

the principle dividing government into legislative (makes laws), executive (enforces laws), and judicial (interprets laws) branches

Shay’s Rebellion

An armed uprising in western Massachusetts where farmers protested against high taxes, debt, and foreclosure

Social Contract

the foundational idea that people give up some individual freedoms in exchange for the security, order, and protection of their natural rights (like life, liberty, property) by a government

Supremacy Clause (Article 6)

establishes that the Constitution, federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties are the "supreme Law of the Land"

Three-Fifths Compromise

a 1787 Constitutional Convention agreement counting three out of every five enslaved persons for both congressional representation (House of Representatives) and direct taxation

Unfunded Mandate

a federal law, regulation, or statute that imposes binding requirements on state, local, or tribal governments (or the private sector) without providing federal funding to cover compliance costs

US v. Lopez

A 12th-grade student was charged with bringing a concealed handgun to his San Antonio, Texas, high school

The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the student, holding that the Act exceeded Congress’s authority under the Commerce Clause.

Virginia Plan

James Madison's proposal for a strong national government with three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) and a bicameral legislature, where representation was based on each state's population, favoring large states over smaller ones, and setting the agenda for the Constitutional Convention's debates