Social Research Methods Exam 2

What is the definition of sampling?

The process of deciding what or whom to observe when you cannot observe and analyze everything or everyone.

What is probability sampling?

A sampling process based on probability, typically involving a random-selection mechanism.

What does it mean for a sample to be representative?

The sample has the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected.

What is generalizability?

The degree to which study results can be applied to a broader context.

What is the margin of error?

The amount of uncertainty in a statistical estimate.

What is a population in research?

The entire group that a researcher is interested in generalizing about.

What is a sampling frame?

The list of units composing the population.

What are elements in the context of sampling?

The individual units comprising a sample.

What is simple random sampling?

A method where each element has the same probability of being selected.

What is systematic sampling?

A method where elements are selected using a fixed interval of every kth element on a list.

What is cluster sampling?

A two-stage process of first sampling groups (clusters) and then randomly selecting elements within those clusters.

What is stratified sampling?

Dividing the population into groups (strata) and sampling members in strategic proportions from each group.

What is oversampling?

Deliberately sampling a specific group at a higher rate than its actual frequency in the population.

Why is sampling necessary?

Due to heterogeneous opinions and limited resources.

What are two primary benefits of probability sampling?

Representativeness and generalizability.

How does probability sampling help avoid bias?

It ensures that those selected are not atypical or unrepresentative of the larger population.

What is the relationship between sample size and margin of error?

A larger sample size results in a smaller margin of error, more closely approximating the true population.

What does it mean if the margins of error of two variables overlap?

You cannot be certain that there is a true difference between the variables.

What is the first step in drawing a probability sample?

Identifying the population of interest.

To what group do the findings of a study apply?

Only to the elements that compose the sampling frame.

What are the four main types of probability samples?

Simple random, systematic, cluster, and stratified sampling.

What is the primary advantage of probability sampling?

It allows for better generalization of results to the broader population.

What is a convenience sample?

A nonprobability sample selected based on ease of access, often justified for exploratory research.

What is selection bias in sampling?

When certain groups within a population are overrepresented or underrepresented.

How does self-selection bias affect survey data?

Individuals who opt into a study may have stronger opinions, which can skew the data.

What is purposive sampling?

Selecting participants based on specific criteria to gain the most useful or insightful information.

What is the goal of 'sampling for range'?

To maximize the respondent's range of experiences with the phenomenon under study.

How does quota sampling differ from stratified sampling?

Stratified sampling uses random selection within strata, while quota sampling is non-random and selects the first available units that fit the criteria.

What is snowball sampling?

A technique where existing interviewees suggest additional people for the researcher to interview.

What is saturation in qualitative research?

The point at which additional data collection fails to yield new insights and only reinforces existing findings.

What is the difference between internal and external validity?

Internal validity concerns the accuracy of causal claims within a study; external validity concerns the generalizability of results beyond the study.

What is the difference between mutually exclusive and exhaustive survey categories?

Mutually exclusive means categories do not overlap; exhaustive means all potential responses are covered.

What is acquiescence bias?

The tendency of survey respondents to agree with statements regardless of their actual opinion.

What is the main disadvantage of face-to-face surveys?

High resource requirements and the potential for social desirability bias.

What are 'interviewer effects'?

When the personal characteristics of the interviewer influence how respondents answer questions.

What is a primary disadvantage of self-administered questionnaires?

They typically suffer from low response and completion rates.

What are order effects in survey design?

When the sequence in which questions are presented biases the responses.

What is crowdsourcing in the context of research?

Enlisting a large group of people to complete tasks, often via platforms like Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk).

What is a limitation of using MTurk for research?

The sample is limited to tech-savvy, often socially liberal users, which limits generalizability.

What is a Likert scale?

A response format that asks respondents to rank their agreement with a statement on a spectrum.

What is a bipolar scale?

A survey format that places two opposing statements on a spectrum, usually represented by numbers.

What is a key informant?

The first point of contact a researcher has with a study population.

Why is piloting important for surveys?

It helps identify potential issues with question clarity, missing options, or survey length before full-scale administration.

What are the ethical concerns regarding low-wage survey platforms?

They may violate the principle of minimizing harm by using vulnerable populations who may feel coerced for a living wage.

What are the three components of survey design?

Order, format, and wording.

How should survey questions be ordered to maintain quality?

Establish rapport, alternate topics to avoid monotony, and end with demographics.

What are three common indicators of low-quality survey data?

Speeders, straight-liners, and failed attention checks.

What is an order effect in survey research?

When the sequence of questions biases the responses.

What is a priming effect?

When exposure to a specific image, word, or feeling shapes immediate subsequent thoughts and feelings.

What is a filter question?

A question that determines if a respondent should answer a subsequent conditional question.

What is a split-ballot design?

A method where the sample is randomly divided, and each group receives a different module of questions.

What is a double-barreled question?

A question that asks about two or more distinct ideas or concepts simultaneously.

How can researchers fix questions that require specialized knowledge?

By providing definitions, examples, or necessary background information.

Why should questions involving negations be avoided?

They often lead to unclear wording and respondent confusion.

What is a leading question?

A question that influences or guides respondents toward a specific, preferred answer.

What is recall bias?

When respondents fail to accurately remember past events or omit details when reporting.

How can researchers mitigate social desirability bias on sensitive topics?

By emphasizing anonymity, removing loaded language, and normalizing behaviors.

What are the three criteria for nomothetic causality?

Correlation, time-ordering, and nonspuriousness.

What is the definition of an experiment in research?

The manipulation of one or more independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable.

In an experiment, what is the independent variable (IV)?

The 'cause' or the stimulus/treatment being manipulated.

In an experiment, what is the dependent variable (DV)?

The 'effect' being measured.

What is the purpose of a control group?

To serve as a baseline comparison by not receiving the treatment condition.

What is the function of random assignment?

To ensure that subjects have an equal chance of being in the treatment or control group, which helps establish causality.

What is a double-blind experiment?

A study where neither the subjects nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

What is the placebo effect?

A phenomenon where subjects experience a change due to their expectation of treatment rather than the treatment itself.

What is the difference between random selection and random assignment?

Random selection determines who enters the study from the population, while random assignment determines which condition a participant receives.

Why is the use of college students as experimental subjects a potential validity issue?

It may limit external validity because the sample is not representative of the general population.

Why is random assignment critical in experimental design?

It ensures spurious variables are distributed equally, allowing researchers to conclude that the independent variable causes the change in the dependent variable.

What do experiments that lack random selection typically lack?

External validity.

What are the primary pros and cons of laboratory experiments?

Pros: high internal validity and maximum control; Cons: low external validity and difficulty in replication.

What are the primary pros and cons of field experiments?

Pros: high external validity and applicability; Cons: less control and reliance on nonrandom samples.

What is an audit study?

A type of field experiment used to assess discrimination by observing real-world interactions where subjects are unaware they are being studied.

What is a natural experiment?

An experiment where the independent variable is manipulated by nature or external circumstances rather than the researcher.

What is a factorial design?

An experimental design that uses two or more independent variables.

What is the difference between a between-subject and within-subject design?

Between-subject assigns participants to only one level of the IV; within-subject exposes participants to all levels of the IV.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a within-subject design?

Advantages: smaller sample size and greater control over spurious variables; Disadvantages: carryover effects and respondent fatigue.

What is a cover story in an experiment?

A false explanation given to participants regarding the purpose of the study to prevent bias.

What are confederates in an experiment?

Individuals trained to act as participants to create specific social pressures or conditions.

What are the three main advantages of experiments?

Establishing causality, high internal validity, and uncovering mechanisms.

What are the primary disadvantages of experiments?

Limited external validity, challenges in replication, and ethical concerns regarding deception and consent.

What is triangulation in research?

Using multiple research methods to study the same question to see if different approaches yield consistent findings.

What was the primary goal of Pager's 'The Mark of a Criminal Record' study?

To examine how criminal records and race interact to affect employment opportunities.

Why did Pager use an audit methodology instead of self-reports?

Self-reports do not allow for causal conclusions; audit studies allow for direct testing of the impact of a criminal record on hiring.

In Pager's study, how were race and criminal record treated in the design?

Race was a between-subjects variable (randomly assigned tester pairs), and criminal record was a within-subjects variable.

What were the key findings of Pager's study regarding race and criminal records?

A criminal record reduces job prospects significantly, and White applicants with a record received more callbacks than Black applicants without one.

What is a single-blind experiment?

A study where the participants (or testers) do not know the true purpose or experimental conditions, but the researchers do.

What is the purpose of using a 2x3 factorial design?

To test the interaction between two independent variables, one with two levels and one with three levels, resulting in six unique conditions.

What is a carryover effect?

In within-subject designs, it is the influence that experiencing one condition has on the participant's performance in a subsequent condition.

What is the main benefit of population-based survey experiments?

They combine the high external validity of surveys with the experimental manipulation of lab studies.