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Personal Rule
Period (1629-1640) during which Charles I ruled without calling Parliament.
Ship Money
A form of taxation imposed by Charles I without parliamentary consent.
Arminianism
A branch of Protestantism emphasizing free will and opposed to strict Calvinist predestination.
Laudian Reforms
Changes in church practices enforced by Archbishop William Laud.
Bishops' Wars
Conflicts between England and Scotland over religious reforms imposed by Charles I.
Commonwealth
The republican government established after the execution of Charles I.
Protectorate
The period of rule by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.
Restoration
The return of Charles II to the throne in 1660, marking the end of the Commonwealth and Protectorate.
Motte and Bailey
Early castle design featuring a wooden or stone keep on a raised earthwork and an enclosed courtyard.
Stone Keep
Castles with central stone keeps, providing durable and strong defenses.
Concentric Castles
Castles with multiple layers of curtain walls for enhanced defense.
Star Fort
Fortification design with star-shaped walls to withstand artillery attacks.
Divine Right of Kings
Belief that monarchs are chosen by God and accountable only to Him.
Forced Loans
Loans imposed on subjects without parliamentary consent.
National Covenant
Document signed by Scots in 1638 rejecting Charles I's religious policies.
Treaty of Berwick
Agreement that temporarily halted the Bishops' Wars.
Newburn
Battle where Scottish forces defeated the English in the Second Bishops' War.
Oliver Cromwell
Leader of the Commonwealth and later Lord Protector.
Major-General Rule
Division of England into military districts under the Protectorate.
Navigation Act (1651)
Law boosting English trade by restricting foreign ships' access to English ports.
Richard Cromwell
Successor to Oliver Cromwell, whose rule saw the collapse of the Protectorate.
Windsor Castle
Example of a motte and bailey castle later developed into a stone fortress.
Norwich Castle
Originally a motte and bailey, later rebuilt in stone.
Dover Castle
Known as the "Key to England," featuring extensive stone defenses.
Rochester Castle
Notable for its imposing stone keep and strategic location.
Beaumaris Castle
Considered the "perfect" concentric castle with strong defenses.
Caerphilly Castle
Known for its extensive water defenses and multiple concentric walls.
Tilbury Fort
Star fort built to protect the Thames estuary.
Plymouth Citadel
Fort incorporating bastion fortification principles.
Hampton Court Palace
Originally a castle, transformed into a lavish palace by Henry VIII.
Edinburgh Castle
Served as a royal residence, military stronghold, and administrative center.
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