Terrorism Final - Readings

Huff+Kertzer - “How Public Defines Terrorism”

- The article itself has the goal to determine how an ordinary person determines if a violent act counts as terrorism

Learns that the intensity and severity of an attack can make people label it as terrorism

- Muslims are mostly responsible fore terrorist attacks

Law Chapter 0 - Introduction

- the problem is the scholars policy analysis and laypeople alike tend to use the word "terrorism' in mutually exclusive ways

- Terrorism is a communicative act intended to influence the behavior of one or more audiences.

- Individuals or groups choose to commit terrorist acts as part of a process of rational and conscious decision-making within particular political and cultural contexts. Thus, terrorism is not, as it is often colloquially described, a kind of madness

Law Chapter 1

- Assyrians are often cited as the earliest practitioners of psychological warfare due to their torture methods and the brutal treatment 

- sometimes it was considered necessary and even good to kill a ruler which was called “tyrannicide”

- The most extraordinary tale of assassination comes from the Book of Judith. It recounts the invasion of Judah by Holofernes, the Assyrian King — woman seduces king and Judith beheads him (Hebrews)

- In the last decades of the Roman Republic there was a new kind of violence, virtually unchecked activity of gangs and thugs whose mayhem was part political and part criminal

Law Chapter 2

- Due to the affairs that were occurring, private murder and political assassination rose

- The church tried to impose some stability and moral compass as they were large landowners and not subject to local law

- These themes rose within the middle ages

- The kings of England were particularly adept at the use of state terror (silver coins and castration)

-Nizari Ismailis, specialized in targeted political assassinations (Would kill sunni religious leaders, viziers, generals, etc)

Law Chapter 3

- Era spawned famous tyranncides

- Over the next several centuries, the rise of royal absolutism and its justification, the divine right of kings, bolstered the case for total subservience to authority

David Rapport - Terrorism in Three Religous Traditions

- argues terrorism has deep historical roots in religion, not just modern politics

- Judiasm: Zealots (1st century Palestine): resisted Roman rule, mixing nationalism with religion.

Sicarii: assassinated Roman officials and Jewish collaborators using daggers in public places — terrorism as spectacle

- Christian terrorism often revolved around purification (eliminating “corrupt” elements of society).

- Islam: The Nizari Ismaili sect (Assassins, 11th–13th c.) carried out highly symbolic targeted killings.

- Leaders were killed in public, often with the assassin making no effort to escape.

- This made the act both terrifying and martyr-like

Religious terrorism is particularly durable and uncompromising because goals are eternal rather than negotiable

David Rapoport

- First wave: Anarchist wave

- Focused on anti-monarchical revolution and assassinations to destroy traditional regimes, fueled by new communication and transportation technologies

"Golden Age of Assassination"

- Second Wave: Anti-Colonial / Nationalist Wave

- Targeted colonial empires to achieve national self-determination; relied heavily on guerrilla tactics and terrorism to force occupying powers to leave.

- Third Wave: New Left / Internationalist Wave

- Inspired by the Vietnam War, emphasizing global revolutionary solidarity, hijackings, hostage-taking, and international media attention

- Fourth Wave: Religious Wave

- Dominated by groups using religious ideology (especially Islamist militants), featuring suicide bombings and globalized networks

Law Chapter 4

- The French Revolution marked a turning point: legitimacy shifted from kings to "the people." If sovereignty belonged to the nation, then enemies weren't just monarchs but whole classes and systems.

- The Reign of Terror (1793-94) institutionalized terror as a tool of virtue. Robespierre justified killing as "prompt, severe, inflexible justice."

- Terror was used against supposed enemies of liberty, often indiscriminately.

- Three strains of the reign of terror

1) Campaign of intimidation against those accused of speculation and hoarding

2) a broader political terror against those accused of conspiring with France's foreign enemies

3) Increase in the use of violence in the manner as an instrument of social and cultural transformation

- By the mid-19th century, terror became linked to mass politics, nationalism, and conspiracies, not just lone assassins.

Law Chapter 5

- If the French Revolution birthed modern terror in theory, Russia was its practical laboratory (1860s-early 1900s).

- Context: Autocratic tsarism, serfdom, censorship, no political representation → fertile ground for radicals.

- Terrorists developed professional conspiratorial organizations: cells, specialists in surveillance, forgery, counterintelligence.

- Russia as "birthplace of modern terrorism"

- Shift from tyrannicide → terrorism: Not just killing rulers, but attacking whole systems and populations in the name of revolution.

Law Chapter 6 - The Era of the European Attentat

- Three factors led anarchists to endorse terrorism

1) the collapse of the international workingmen's Association: which was an umbrella organization of socialist and anarchist groups

2) the failure of a number of comically inept anarchist insurrections

3) governments introduced a number of social reforms meant to improve the lives of workers: led people to abandon anarchism

- Anarcho terrorism reached its climax in the 1890s, and the perpetrators were convinced of it themselves and demonstrated their beliefs through terrorist acts, which is known as "reprise individuelle."

- With the destruction of old forces and the failure of any new ones to emerge, individual violence was on the rise

- Many anarchists and radical socialists like Italy, Spain, and France graduated to syndicalism and its emphasis on the trade union orchestrated general strike as the proper lever for effecting change

Law Chapter 7 - Labor, Anarchy, and Terror in America

- By the 1870s anarcho socialism thrived among immigrant communities

- Most's arrival in the US where he did a nationwide tour left revolutionary clubs popping up in his wake

- Many papers focused their efforts on agitation and propaganda in trade unions, a development that helped to cement in the imaginations of many Americans the belief that labor organizations nurtured anarchists bent on destruction

- Another factor that contributed to fear/hatred toward union organizers and revolutionary activists was the rising of anti-immigrant nativism sweeping the country

Law Chapter 8 -White Supremacy and American Racial Terrorism

- The violence of the KKK and other white supremacists was a counter-revolution to the reconstructive policies post Civil War

- The pursuit of white supremacist terrorism was made possible by the devastation emotionally, economically, and physically of the South

- They believed that white supremacist terrorism was more of a self-defense act against corruption and "unnatural" race relations

- Southern states started to pass "Black Codes"

- KKK founded in Pulaski Tennessee in late 1865 and early 1866 by six confederate veterans who allegedly took name from Greek "kuklos" meaning circle which was modified to calm

- Records of such violence were often not kept for the simple reason that it was not regarded as criminal by many authorities

- Black and white republicans were kept away from the voting booths by white supremacist terrorism in succinct numbers (along with other acts to disenfranchize black people from having a voice)

Byman -White Supremacy, Terrorism, and the Failure of Reconstruction in the United States

- Reconstruction (1867-1877) failed primarily because of white supremacist violence, which functioned as terrorism and insurgency.

- Despite structural challenges, the decisive factor was the U.S. government's inability—and at times unwillingness—to suppress this violence.

- White supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan and the Red Shirts systematically used terror to disenfranchise Black voters, intimidate Republican leaders, and reassert white political dominance

Law Chapter 9 - Dawn of Ethno-Nationlist Terrorism

- Imperialism was frequently justified as a christianizing, civilizing mission, its principle goal was the economic exploitation of native peoples and their resources which resulted in radically unequal distribution of weather, land ownership, education, employment and political power between the colonizers and the colonized

- Modern origins of sub state ethno nationalist terrorism can be found in Ireland with the a struggle with the English

- Revolutionary terrorism became colloquially known as "the Russian Method" throughout much of the world

- Easter Uprising and Irish War for Independence was the first widely emulated examples of ethno-nationalist terrorism

Law Chapter 11 - Decolonization and Ethno-Nationlist Terrorism from 1930s to early 1960s

- First are groups fighting for an end to their colonial status

- Second are groups fighting for independence or autonomy within a larger states 'home' borders (Israel and Palestine)

Law Chapter 13 -The Era of Leftist and International Terrorism

- A new generation of theorists sought to make Marxism relevant to such circumstance and they found an eager audience, particularly in the massive student populations

- The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia and Narco-Terrorism: Tactics include assassinations, hijackings, and bombings on both military and civilian targets

- The Shining Path: The Shining Path: Latin America's most violent and disruptive terrorist organization has been Peru's Sendero Luminoso - the SHining Path

- U.S. New Left + Weatherman: Student movements and social unrest led to violence as well but radical groups had far less direct impact while the popular state sponsored reactions were decidedly less violent and less anti-democratic

Gottlieb Chapter 3 -Can Terrorism ever be Justified?

Aknowledges that terrorism is understood as the intentional use of violence of violence against civilians for political ends but questions if it ever can be morally justified

Miesles says NO: terrorism is always morally wrong in general and there are other tactics that people can resort to, if we allow "exceptions" then everything becomes exceptions

Honderich says YES: terrorism can be morally justified as a response to severe ongoing justice (used Palestine with Israel as supporting evidence)

Lewis, Bernard Chapter 1 (Lessons of the Battlefield)- Clash between Islam and modernity in the Middle East

- In the 1600s muslims had early military superiority, muslim armies expanded rapidly across middle east, North africa and Europe. This reinforced the idea of Islam as divinely guided

- By late 1600s europeans were giving pushback (vienna 1683)

- Treaty or Carlowitz in 1699, first time Ottomans signed as defeated

- Europe changed the art of war

Lewis, Bernard Chapter 2 (Quest for Wealth and Power)- Clash between Islam and modernity in the Middle East

- Ottomans loss of trade dominance through Europe's discovery of direct trade routes around africa; "discovery" of new world; and colonization in asia

- They regarded these shifts as minor, focusing on land wars in Europe, which caused an overall diminished the economic and political leverage of the Mid East

Lewis, Bernard Chapter 3 (Social and Cultural Barriers)- Clash between Islam and modernity in the Middle East

- Earlier the Ottomans would translate greek, persian, indian knowledge, but by the renaissance this was not happening with european knowledge

- The Islamic world missed Europe's intellectual revolutions and became increasingly dependent on European knowledge and training.

Gottlieb Chapter 1 

Is new terrorism really new?

- Some believe that in the 1990s a new form of terrorism was formed, made  of groups with religious motivation, with maximalist demands, wanting mass casualties, and often using weapons of mass destruction

No: by Spencer 

Religious motivation is not new, but a return to old motives 

- Al-Qaeda sparked a search for new in a very old phenomenon 

- Tech is updated but it did this across the world 

- Loose cells a byproduct of technology 

Yes: by Gunarata 

- Al-Qaeda sparked new terrorism 

- 5 types of terrorism (left/t=right wing, ethno-political, politico-religious, state sponsored, and single issue)

- 2 decades of no major terror post cold war 

- Network of groups world wide with no real leader is new

Law Chapter 12 -The Return of Religious Terrorism

- Essentially the same things that were talked about in lecture

- Sayyid Qutb wouldn't have had an audience if it weren't for: Failed promises from Nasser's predecessor, 20th cent retreat of the ulema, US peace treaty w Israel, Oil wealth in the Middle east

- Iranian revolution

- The Afghan Mujaideen: Rebels who fought against soviet gov in afghanistan -- Was given hella money from the US through pakistan

- Bin Laden was led out of retirement due to American troop present and new round of intense study of quean (Taymiyya)

Bin Laden, World Islamic Front Statement, 1998

- World islamic front against jews and crusaders created by Bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, Abu Yasir Rifa'i Ahmad Taha, Sheikh Mir Hamzah, and Maulana Fazlur Rahman

- Condemns US policies in Mid East

- America and the west described as "crusader hordes"

- Killing americans and their allies is the duty of all muslims

Bin Laden, To the Americans, 2002

- Answers why al qaeda is fighting US and what they want from US

Why:

- attacked arabs in palestine, and supported israel

- Oil theft

- Protection of jews

What:

- Islamification of the west

- Stop oppression, lies, immorality and debauchery

9/11 Commissioned Report

- Oil states had unprecedented growth, but the other mid east states became economically stagnant

- Bin laden as a symbol of resistance to the West and America

- Al-qaeda Recruited people through mosques, schools, and boarding houses around the world

- Bin Laden and Al Qaeda wanted to destroy the US

Gerges Chapter 1 - World According to ISIS

- ISIS is an extension of the global Alafi-jahadist movement that has tapped into a clash of identities between Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims

- The world according to ISIS is frozen in time and space, in incorporating the rules and laws of seventh century Arabia into the twenty first century — Baghdadi and his associates present themselves as battling "antichrist"

- Caliphate as a political entity and collective religious obligation

- Slavery and misogyny

Gerges Chapter 6 - How the Syrian War Empowered ISIS

- Syrian war powered ISIS through dysfunctional political system in Iraq

- Syrian Assad regime transformed the country from state controlled to capitalist economy

- Islamic state of Iraq estb Al-Nursa in Syria

- Salafi-jihadist org trying to overthrow Assad

- Found constituency in rural areas

- ISIS went to great lengths to back al- Nusra's expansion in many towns in northern Syria, particularly in rural areas

Falode - The Nature of Nigerias Boko Haram War, 2010-2015: A Strategic Analysis

- War between Boko Haram and Nigeria was a hybrid war (not a war on terror) that evolved from a fringe religious movement into a sophisticated insurgency

- 4th gen warfare: delegitimization of the Nigerian State, undermining public confidence, exploitation of media/propaganda

- Compound Warfare: use of both conventional (attacking barracks) and irregular tactics at the same time

- Unrestricted warfare: both sides use all possible resources

3 phases:

- 1995-2002: civil unrest

- 2002-2009: religious uprising

- 2010-2015: insurgency + hybrid war

Silverman - America Has More Latitude With Israel Than It Thinks 2024

- Biden reluctant to pressure Israel, thinking he could shift Netenyahu's mindset

- US has no leverage to stop Israel

- Majority of ISraelis support a ceasefire in order to release their hostages (63%) (Out of 1200 people surveyed)

- Netenyahu sensitive to US pressure

- Biden's sympathy for Israel, and being influenced by an election year (2024)

Byman, A war they are both losing 2024

- Hamas' attack on Israel Oct 7 2023 was the largest loss of Jewish life since Holocaust (1200)

- Both Hamas and Israel may be losing. Each can point to quite real successes against the other, but when the fighting subsides, both are likely to be worse off than they were when the war started

- The war is largely at an impasse, with Israel likely to make only marginal military gains in the near term while Hamas clings to survival.

Hamas:

- Their infrastructure and civilian pop. have been devastated

Israel:

- Mowing the grass terrorism (managing rather than actual progress)

-(New approaches are necessary bc of a standstill, ceasefire is the next logical step)

Gottlieb Ch 4, - Is far right terrorism a greater threat than islamist Militancy

- Silber identifies multiple extremist threats inside the US but argues that the far right movements pose the greatest potential for violence

- Surveys both domestic and international threat environemnt

Yes, McCarthy:

- far right extremism has surpassed militant jihadism as a primary terrorism concern

- Increased frequency in overseas attacks, online pro islamic stuff that is a concern to the US' security

- Escalations between the US and Iran are concerning

Increased radical anti-israel and anti-semetic protest

No, Gerges:

Law Chapter 14

- Central tenet of Islam is tawhid, the oneness of God - not only does this demand of muslims strict monotheism but it means that God alone is the source of all authority

- Nasser courted the Muslim Brotherhood and a violent clash broke out

- The center of this class was Sayyid Qutb

- Qtub called for the emergence of a new generation of - Muslim leaders whose devotion to sharia would allow them to lead by example and through fatwas

Piazza - The Determinants of Domestic: right wing terrorism in USA....

- Right wing terrorist attacks compose ¼ of total attacks in the us, but left wing attacks are more frequent over the time period as a whole

3 indicators that explain how economic changes + hardships relate to terrorist attacks 

- Percentage of state pop living below poverty 

- Percentage of pop employed in manufacturing 

- Long term changes in agricultural success (farms in state) 

- Potentially state unemployment levels and income inequality 

- right-wing terrorism is not rooted in economic grievances, economic stress or structural economic change

- States with more women in power, or when there is a democratic president  experience more right wing terrorism

Powell Birmingham

- stopping almost all new immigration

- encouraging large-scale voluntary repatriation

- eliminating legal protections that restrict racial discrimination

- Statesmanship must prevent all avoidable evils

- Immigration must be drastically reduced

Whittaker Mantra

- Race problem is for every white country that there are people immigrating to these countries

- Disagreeing with immigrants assimilating to "white" culture, instead promoting immigrants to immigrate to "black" countries

- White genocide

Roof, Manifesto

- He believed Black on white crime is a bigger deal than people say

- The situation is even worse in Europe, where there is also a "jewish Problem"

- Convinced that white people are the true victims

- Promotes segregation

- Promotes destruction of the jewish identity

Believes hispanic people are better than black people but still enemies

Tarrant - The Great Replacement

- Christchurch manifesto

- Extinction of the european peoples bc of falling brithrates

- Immigration is invasion and white genocide

- Democratic processes have failed in preventing this, and violence is the only answer

Klofstad - Belief in White Replacement

- roughly one‑third of Americans agree that political and corporate leaders, or the government, are intentionally "replacing" white people with non‑white immigrants, and they treat this as a specific conspiracy belief rather than a simple hard‑line immigration attitude (27-33%)

- women, higher‑income respondents, and those higher in Christian nationalism are more likely to endorse White Replacement, whereas general religiosity, age, education, and (in the pooled model) race are not significant predictors

- White Replacement believers are more likely to endorse a wide range of other conspiracy theories and dubious claims

Krieger - What causes terrorism?

- Poverty and inequality alone rarely cause terrorism

- Economic hardship matters only when paired with poor institutions or lack of non violent opportunities

- High ethnic or religious tension can increase terrorism

- Trade openness and globalization generally reduce terrorism by improving prosperity

- Overall, political systems, governance quality, and stability matter more than poverty or inequality

Features of high-risk countries

- Large populations

- Weak or transitioning regimes

- Close political ties to the US

- Located near "terror hotspot"

Gottlieb Chapter 2 - Does Poverty Serve as a root cause of terrorism?

- Piazza argues that poverty, inequality, and low economic development do not cause terrorism

Policy makers assume

- Poor people become frustrated when they see inequalities

- Resentment leads to radical ideologies

- Therefore foreign aid and economic development should reduce terrorism

- Terrorism fluctuates cyclically

Karen Hippel says yes poverty is important cause

- Don't treat "aid=counterterrorism" anti-poverty programs alone rarely reduce terrorism

Kydd/Walter - The Strategies of Terrorism

- Argue that terrorism is a form of strategic communication not irrational violence because terrorists are usually too weak to win militarily, they use attacks as "costly signals" to send messages to governments and populations

Atran - Devoted Actors

- Motivated by sacred values like Religion and Ideology

- Act based on considerations of right and wrong (Most costs and benefits)

- Resistant to compromise

Robert Pape - Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism

- Suicide bombing most effective tactic of terrorism

- Typically used in opposition to "foreign occupation"

- Typically targeted at democracies

- Successful 50% of the time

- Why suicide terrorism? Pape: to fight democratic occupiers (And because it works)

Assaf Moghadam - Motives of Martyrdom…

His core argument that the rise of global suicide terrorism since 9/11 stems form two points

- 1) Al-Qaeda's evolution into a global network, not a local insurgency

- 2) The spread of Salafi Jihad ideology, which fuses religion and politics and glorifies "martyrdom operations" as the highest form of jihad

Booms "Outbidding Thesis"

- Mia Bloom claimed groups adopt suicide tactics to compete for local support

- Moghadam notes this fails to explain why many attacks target fellow Muslims or occur without local approval, indicating a transnational ideology, not competition for popularity

Lieber Press - Why States Won’t Give Nuclear Weapons to Terrorists

- examines whether nuclear-armed states would ever give nuclear weapons to terrorist organizations to attack enemies indirectly.

- Argues States would not transfer nuclear weapons to terrorists because they could not do so anonymously and would face certain retaliation if discovered

Gotlieb Chapter 6 - Is Nuclear terrorism a real threat?

- presents a debate on whether nuclear terrorism is a real and imminent threat or an overblown fear.

- YES: Matthew Bunn (Harvard University) — argues that nuclear terrorism is a very real and urgent threat.

- NO: Susan B. Martin (King's College London) — argues that the risk is greatly exaggerated and highly improbable

Abrahms - Why Terrorism Does Not Work

- Abrams studied 28 groups in the state dept. List

- Coded their gaols

- Coded their level of success

- Found success in only 7 percent

Rose/Murphy - Does Terrorism Ever Work?

- Response to Abrahms "why terrorism does not work"

- Rose and Murphy challenge his claim by presenting 2004 Madrid train bombings as a potential counterexample, an instance where terrorism at least partially succeded

- Abrhams says there are rare exceptions

Fortna - Do Terrorists Win? Rebels’ Use of Terrorism and Civil War Outcomes

- Fortna is addressing the question "does terrorism help rebel groups achieve their political goals"

- Fortna uses civil wars as the testing ground, comparing rebel groups that use terrorism to those that don't, to see which achieve victory, concessions, or survival

- She found that terrorism fails to achieve political goals

- Rebel groups that use terrorism are less likely to win or to gain concessions than those that avoid it

Muller Stewart - the Terrorism Delusion 

- Essentially saying that the United states spent too much on 9/11, and is spending too much on DHS 

- The risk of dying from a terrorist attack is lower than the risk of dying from drowning in a bathtub --- One in 3.5 Million chance of dying in a terrorist attack for Americans

- The threat of terrorism is minimal and 9/11 was an extremely unusual event

- Calculating the benefit of a security measure includes 3 elements: 

- Probability of a successful attack

- Losses sustained in the successful attack 

- Reduction in risk generated by the security measure

- For US spending on counterterror to be worth it, we’d have to stop 333 attacks per year

Gottlieb Chapter 8 - Can Spreading Democracy help Defeat Terrorism?

- How American political institutions affect the policy process

- Intentionally fragmented to divide and balance power

- Policy making is slow, incremental, and often conflict-ridden

- Federalism shapes policy outcomes

- Most major political conflicts are over power distribution

Savun Tirone - Foreign Aid as a Counterterrorism Tool: More Liberty, Less Terror?

- Most counterterror research is focused only on economic aid, which creates a pessimistic view on aid's effectiveness

- Bc terrorism stems from political grievances, economic conditions aren't always applicable

- Governance and civil society aid targets these political root causes (Reduces domestic terrorism (only when its not a civil war) )

- Aid works by increasing civil liberties

- Democracy assistance can be an effective counterterrorism strategy

Byman - Explaining Israel’s Suppression of the Second Intifada

- Israel successfully smashed the operational capacity of Palestinian militant groups

The key to Israel's success was intelligence and control The combination of:

- Reoccupation of West Bank cities (2002)

- Mass arrests

- Targeted killings

- Checkpoints + the West Bank security barrier

- created an intelligence-driven system that dismantled networks from the inside.

- Argues that counterterrorism DID NOT backfire in the short term but it most likely will in the long run

- He recommends to modify barrier route, support moderates and not undermine them.

Downes and ORourke -Why Foreign-Imposed Regime Change Seldom Improves Interstate Relations

- Main takeaway that reign imposed regime change rarely improes relations and often makes them worse

- Replacing another countries leader does not reliably produce a friendly government

- Changing leaders doesn't change state interests

Patrick Johnston - The Impact of US Drone Strikes on Terrorism

Johnston and Sarbahi find that drone strikes in FATA

- Decrease frequency of terrorist attacks (in the vicinity of the strike)

- Decrease lethality of terrorist attacks

- Decrease number of attacks on tribal elders

- Do not cause increase in attacks in areas more distant from the drone strike

Aqil Shah - Do U.S. Drone Strikes Cause Blowback?...

Aqil Shah interviewed 167 north Waziristan

- 71 percent disagreed that drone strikes create militants

- Population much more opposed to Pakistani army operations

- Militants greatly feared drone strikes (Hindered their operations)

Ron Hassner - The Myth of the Ticking Bomb

- Ticking bomb scenario - using torture seen as fastest way to get information under dier circumstances (short amount of time)

- He argues that because its influential its dangerous and if it weren't it would be laughable

- This extreme edge hypothetical has been used to normalize the coercive interrogation techniques into an everyday policy option

Paul Gronke - U.S. Public Opinion on Torture

- The common claim that most american support torture after 9/11 is wrong and majority of americans consistently opposed torture even when survery questions assumed the torture would work in saving lives

- Not a single poll before June 2009 showed greater than 50 percent support

- All the poll questions assumed that the detainee has valuable info, torture would work, and there was an implied urgent threat (Yet still strong opposition)

Gottlieb Chapter 11 - Counterterrorism and the Constitution: Does providing security require a trade off with civil liberties?

Does counterterrorism require the United States to sacrifice civil liberties and expand executive power in order to increase security?

YES — John Yoo (UC Berkeley School of Law): argues executive power must expand and civil liberties must be limited in wartime, especially after 9/11.

- War on terrorism is a new kind of conflict requiring rapid, flexible, excutive action

NO — David Cole (Georgetown Law Center): argues preserving civil liberties and restraining executive overreach is essential to American security and ideals.

Peter Bergen - Do NSA’s Bulk Surveillance Programs Stop Terrorists?

- The authors argue that NSA bulk surveillance programs have had little to no measurable impact on stopping terrorist attacks. Government claims about their effectiveness are exaggerated, misleading, and often unsupported by the evidence.

- They conclude that traditional investigative methods, not bulk surveillance, are what actually prevent terrorism.

Acc to Law, how did the reign of Terror from the fr rev differ from earlier forms of political violence?

introduced violence as a tool for broad social and cultural transformation

in rappaports 4 waves, what was a key characteristic of the second wave?

estb of new states after compelling powers to leave

what is gause’s arguement against democracy promotion as a counterterror strategy ?

arab democracy could put islamist parties in power that oppose US interests