Chapter Two: Theories of Development

Accommodation

Changing mental schemas so they fit new experiences

Anal Stage

Freud's second stage during which toddlers' sexual energy is focused on the anus

Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)

Application of operant conditioning techniques to change behavior of individuals with a range of difficulties, including autism spectrum disorder

Assimilation

Fitting new experiences into existing mental schemas

Behaviorism

The theory developed by John B. Watson that focuses on environmental control of observable behavior

Chronosystem

In ecological systems theory, the dimension of time, including one's age and the time in history in which one lives

Classical Conditioning

The process by which a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that naturally evokes a certain response (the unconditioned response) is paired repeatedly with a neutral stimulus. Eventually the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus and evokes the same response, now called the conditioned response

Connectionist or Neural Network Model

In this model the cognitive process is envisioned as a neural network that consists of concept nodes interconnected by links that process information simultaneously

Constructivism

The idea that humans actively construct their understanding of the world, rather than passively receiving knowledge

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

The study of the relation between cognitive development and the development of the brain

Developmental Theory

A model of development based on observations that allows us to make predictions

Dynamic Assessment

A testing procedure that uses a test-intervene-test procedure to assess the examinee's potential to change

Dynamic Systems Theory

The theory that all aspects of development interact and affect each other in a dynamic process over time

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's concept of development as a result of the interaction between an individual and a nested system of influences

Ego

The part of the personality that contends with the reality of the world and controls the basic drives

Embodied Cognition

The concept that cognition is a product of a complex interaction of the brain, bodily activity, and environmental experience

Equilibration

An attempt to resolve uncertainty to return to a comfortable cognitive state

Ethology

The study of the adaptive value of animal and human behavior in the natural environment

Exosystem

Settings that the child never enters but that affect the child's development nevertheless, such as the parents' place of work

Extinction

In operant conditioning, the process by which a behavior stops when it receives no response from the environment

Genital Stage

Freud's fifth and final stage in which people 12 and older develop adult sexuality

Id

According to psychoanalytic theory, the part of personality that consists of the basic drives, such as sex and hunger

Imprinting

In ethology, the automatic process by which animals attach to their mothers

Latency Stage

Freud's fourth stage, involving children ages 6 to 12, when the sex drive goes underground

Macrosystem

Cultural norms that guide the nature of the organizations and places that make up one's everyday life

Mesosystem

The interaction among the various settings in the microsystem, such as a child's school and home

Microsystem

In ecological theory, the face-to-face interaction of the person in her immediate settings, such as home, school, or friendship groups

Negative Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a response that makes a behavior more likely to happen again because an unpleasant stimulus is removed following the behavior

Operant Conditioning

The process that happens when the response that follows a behavior causes that behavior to happen more

Oral Stage

Freud's first stage in which the infant's sexual drive is centered on the mouth area

Phallic Stage

Freud's third stage in which children 3 to 6 years of age overcome their attraction to the opposite-sex parent and begin to identify with the same-sex parent

Phobia

An irrational fear of something specific that is so severe that it interferes with day-to-day functioning

Positive Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a response that makes a behavior more likely to happen again because a pleasant experience follows the behavior

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's theory in which the way we deal with biological urges moves us through a series of stages that shape our personalities

Psychosexual Stages

Freud's idea that at each stage sexual energy is invested in a different part of the body

Psychosocial Stages

Erikson's stages based on a central conflict to be resolved involving the social world and the development of identity

Punishment

Administering a negative consequence or taking away a positive reinforcement to reduce the likelihood of an undesirable behavior occurring

Reinforcement

A response to a behavior that causes that behavior to happen more

Scaffolding

The idea that more knowledgeable adults and children support a child's learning by providing help to move the child just beyond his current level of capability

Schema

A cognitive framework that places concepts, objects, or experiences into categories or groups of associations

Self Efficacy

A belief in our ability to influence our own functioning and life circumstances

Shaping Behavior

Reinforcing behaviors to become progressively more like the desired behavior

Social Cognitive Theory

The theory that individuals learn by observing others and imitating their behavior

Stores Model

The idea that information is processed through a series of mental locations (sensory to short-term to long-term memory "stores")

Superego

Freud's concept of the conscience or sense of right and wrong

Unconscious Mind

The part of the mind that contains thoughts and feelings about which we are unaware

Zone of Proximal Development

According to Vygotsky, this is what a child cannot do on her own but can do with a little help from someone more skilled or knowledgeable