HDFS 311 Exam 3 (FINAL) Fall 2025

Correlational Study

Research that examines the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

Cross-Sectional Study

Compares different age groups at one point in time.

Longitudinal Study

Follows the same individuals over an extended period to track development.

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth-2 years; infants learn through senses and motor actions; object permanence develops.

Preoperational Stage

2-7 years; symbolic thought grows, but children show egocentrism and lack conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years; logical thinking develops for concrete situations; children understand conservation.

Formal Operational Stage

12+ years; abstract and hypothetical reasoning emerges.

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas to incorporate new information.

Equilibrium

Cognitive balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Object Premanence

Understanding that objects still exist when not visible.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing the world from another perspective.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance.

Sociocultural Theory

Learning happens through social interaction and cultural tools.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.

Scaffolding

Support provided by a skilled person that helps a child learn.

Individual (Bronfenbrenner's Model)

The child and their personal characteristics.

Microsystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Direct environments (family, school, peers).

Mesosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Interactions between microsystems (home-school communication).

Exosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Indirect environments (parent's workplace).

Macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Cultural values, laws, and societal norms.

Chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

Historical time period and life transitions (e.g., pandemics, divorce).

Epigenetics

How environments influence gene expression without altering DNA.

Gene x Environment Interaction

Both genes and environment shape development.

Reaction Range

Possible developmental outcomes determined by genetics but shaped by environment.

Gross Motor Skills

Large muscle movements (walking, jumping).

Fine Motor Skills

Small muscle movements (grasping, writing).

Motor Development Sequence

Predictable order in which physical skills emerge (e.g., sitting → crawling → walking → jumping).

Attachment

Emotional bond between infant and caregiver.

Basic Emotions

Emotions present early in life (joy, fear, anger).

Secondary Emotions

Require social understanding (pride, guilt, shame).

Theory of Mind

Understanding that others have beliefs and desires different from one's own.

Socialization

How children learn norms from family, peers, and media.

Gender Socialization

Learning gender norms and roles.

Multistore Model of Memory

Memory divided into sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Register

Brief storage of incoming sensory information.

Working Memory

Actively holds information temporarily for mental tasks.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent, unlimited information storage.

Retrieval

Getting information out of long-term memory.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to hold it in working memory.

Metacognition

Awareness and regulation of one's own thinking.

Self-Regulated Learning

Planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning strategies.

Spearman's g

A general intelligence factor underlying all mental abilities.

s-Factors

Specific abilities related to particular tasks.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Intelligence has analytic, creative, and practical components.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Eight or more distinct types of intelligence.

IQ (intelligence quotient)

Standardized score measuring general cognitive ability (100 = average).

self-determination theory (SDT)

Motivation depends on competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Expectancy-value theory

Motivation depends on expectations for success and the value of the task.

Task Value: Utility Value

Practical usefulness of a task.

Task Value: Attainment Value

Importance to one's identity.

Task Value: Interest

Enjoyment of the task.

Task Value: Cost

What is given up (stress, time).

Peer Socialization

How peers influence behavior through modeling and reinforcement.

Social Status: Well-liked

Popular and socially preferred.

Social Status: Controversial

Both highly liked and disliked.

Social Status: Neglected

Not noticed by peers.

Social Statuse: Rejected

Actively disliked.

Bullying

Repeated aggression with a power imbalance.

Types of Bullying

Physical, verbal, relational, cyber.

Conditions that promote bullying

Lack of supervision, social hierarchies.

Conditions that prevent bullying

Supportive climate, strong adult involvement.

Internal Factors of child well-being

Biology, identity, physical health.

External factors of child well-being

Family, peers, schooling, historical context.

Mental health challenges of child well-being

Anxiety, depression, behavioral problems in childhood.

PISA

An international test comparing reading, math, and science achievement.

Numeracy

Understanding numbers and quantities.

Subitizing

Instantly recognizing small quantities without counting.

Counting Principles

One-to-one correspondence and cardinality.

Non-symbolic numeracy

Understanding quantities without number symbols.

symbolic numeracy

Using number words and symbols.

phonological awareness

Ability to detect and manipulate sounds in words.

Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondence

Matching letters to sounds.

Phonological Recording

Sounding out words using phonics.

Simple View of Reading

Reading Comprehension = Word Recognition × Language Comprehension.

Reading Rope Subskills

Vocabulary, background knowledge, decoding, fluency, etc.

dyslexia

Difficulty with accurate and fluent word reading and spelling

Dyscalculia

Difficulty with math reasoning and number sense.

Dysgraphia

Difficulty with handwriting and written expression.

ADHD

Symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Challenges in social communication and restricted/repetitive behaviors.

Medical Model of Disability

Focuses on impairments within the individual.

Social Model of Disability

Emphasizes societal barriers as the source of disability.

Screen Use Prevalence

High levels of digital device use among children.

Screen time recommendations

Guidelines for healthy use depending on age.

generational context

Understanding how historical and cultural changes shape childhood experiences.

How does Spearman's theory of intelligence (g) compare to Sternberg or Gardner?

Spearman argues intelligence is one general factor (g) that supports all mental tasks. Gardner argues for multiple independent intelligences (e.g., linguistic, spatial, musical). Spearman sees intelligence as unified; the others see it as multidimensional.

Put these in order: non-symbolic, symbolic, verbal math knowledge.

1) Non-symbolic knowledge (recognizing quantities like "*****"), 2) Symbolic knowledge (knowing "5" represents quantity), 3) Verbal math knowledge (saying "five").

Will colored reading glasses help dyslexia? Why or why not?

No. Dyslexia is caused by weaknesses in phonological processing—difficulty mapping sounds to letters. Colored glasses may reduce visual strain but do not fix phonological awareness, which is the root mechanism behind reading difficulties.

What are the three needs in Self-Determination Theory?

Competence (feeling capable), Autonomy (feeling in control of choices), Relatedness (feeling connected to others). When all three are met, motivation increases.

What is the difference between being popular and being well-liked?

"Popular" refers to social status and visibility—someone may be high-status but not kind. "Well-liked" means peers genuinely enjoy and prefer the person. They are not the same and don't always overlap.

What is the difference between the medical and social model of disability?

The medical model sees disability as a deficit within the child (e.g., “fix the child”). A school might add therapy but change little else. The social model sees disability as created by barriers in the environment. A school might install ramps, provide accessible materials, or adapt classrooms to support mobility.

Describe the sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory register: very brief, large capacity; receives raw sensory input.Working memory: limited capacity; holds info temporarily for thinking.Long-term memory: unlimited capacity; stores information permanently.Movement between stages happens through: rehearsal, organization, elaboration, and retrieval.

Put these in developmental order: walking, standing, rolling over, jumping, sitting, cruising.

Rolling over → Sitting → Standing → Cruising → Walking → Jumping.

Compare cognitive abilities in the sensorimotor vs. preoperational stage.

Sensorimotor: learning through senses and actions; no mental symbols; object permanence emerges. Preoperational: symbolic thinking and language grow, but children show egocentrism and lack conservation; reasoning is intuitive, not logical.

Compare cognitive abilities in concrete operational vs. formal operational stages.

Concrete operational: children think logically about concrete objects; understand conservation, classification. Formal operational: adolescents can think abstractly, use hypotheticals, and reason scientifically.

Briefly describe the six levels of Bronfenbrenner's model with examples

Individual: child’s traits (temperament). Microsystem: direct environments (family, school). Mesosystem: interactions between microsystems (parent–teacher meetings). Exosystem: indirect environments (parent’s workplace). Macrosystem: cultural norms and laws. Chronosystem: historical time or life transitions (growing up during COVID).

What is the difference between basic and secondary emotions?

Basic emotions (joy, fear, anger) appear in infancy. Secondary emotions (pride, guilt, shame) require self-awareness and emerge later in early childhood.

What is Theory of Mind, and how does it differ between ages 3 and 7?

Theory of Mind is understanding that others have their own thoughts and beliefs. Age 3: children struggle with false-belief tasks. Age 7: children understand that beliefs can differ from reality and from their own perspective.