Social Psychology: Key Concepts, Research Methods, and Theories

What is social psychology?

The scientific study of the causes and consequences of people's thoughts, feelings, and actions regarding themselves and others.

Why is the scientific method necessary in social psychology?

Intuition is biased and unsystematic; science produces evidence-based conclusions.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe after learning an outcome that we "knew it all along."

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek and interpret information that confirms our existing beliefs.

Big Theme #1

Behavior is a function of both the situation and the person.

Big Theme #2

Behavior is strongly influenced by how we interpret the situation.

Theory

An explanation for how and why variables are related.

Hypothesis

An if-then statement derived from a theory predicting relationships between variables.

Research

The process of observing events, identifying patterns, and evaluating theories.

Operational definition

The specific way a variable is measured or manipulated.

Self-report measure

A method where participants report their own thoughts or feelings.

Correlation

A statistical measure of the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A number ranging from -1 to +1 indicating strength and direction of a relationship.

Positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other increases.

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Strength of correlation

Closer to -1 or +1 is strong; closer to 0 is weak.

Correlation does not equal causation

Just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.

Reverse causality problem

The possibility that B causes A rather than A causing B.

Third variable problem

A separate variable causes both A and B.

Longitudinal study

A study that tracks the same variables over time.

Association

A relationship between variables that are not experimentally manipulated.

Experiment

A study where the researcher manipulates the independent variable and measures the dependent variable.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable measured by the researcher.

Internal validity

The extent to which we can conclude the IV caused changes in the DV.

External validity

The extent to which findings generalize to other people, settings, and times.

Confound

A variable other than the IV that may influence the DV.

Random assignment

Randomly assigning participants to experimental conditions.

Demand characteristics

Cues that signal the study's purpose and influence participant behavior.

Experimenter bias

When researchers' expectations influence participants.

Field study

Research conducted in a real-world setting.

Psychological realism

The extent to which psychological processes in a study resemble real-life processes.

Preregistration

Publicly specifying hypotheses and methods before collecting data.

HARKing

Hypothesizing After Results are Known.

Open data

Publicly sharing research data.

Open materials

Publicly sharing study materials.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that evaluates research ethics.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of a study after participation.

Evolutionary perspective

View that social behaviors evolved because they were adaptive.

Natural selection

Process by which traits that improve survival and reproduction are selected.

Adaptation

A trait that evolved because it served a functional purpose.

Naturalistic fallacy

Assuming something is correct or good because it is natural.

Humans as social animals

Humans need relationships and care about others.

Humans as motivated animals

Humans are driven to meet needs and goals.

Humans as intelligent animals

Humans use symbolic thought and language.

Humans as emotional animals

Emotions function as feedback tools.

Symbolic thought

Ability to imagine what is not physically present.

Language

A symbolic communication system.

Emotion as information

Emotions signal important environmental information (fear = danger).

Trade-offs in adaptation

Adaptations involve benefits and costs.

Two systems of thinking

System 1 (fast, intuitive) and System 2 (slow, effortful).

System 1

Fast, automatic, intuitive, subconscious.

System 2

Slow, deliberate, effortful, conscious.

Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT)

Test measuring ability to override intuitive but incorrect answers.

Conditions needed to correct System 1

Awareness, ability, and motivation.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype.

Conjunction fallacy

Believing a combination of events is more likely than a single event.

Availability heuristic

Judging frequency or likelihood based on ease of recall.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make judgments quickly.

Pros of heuristics

Efficient and often accurate.

Cons of heuristics

Can lead to systematic biases.

Schema

A mental framework organizing knowledge.

Script

A schema for events.

Stereotype

A schema about a group of people.

Priming

Making a schema more accessible.

Constructed memory

Memory is reconstructed using schemas rather than replayed exactly.

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice visible but unexpected objects.

Change blindness

Failure to notice changes in the environment.

Causal attribution

An explanation for why a behavior occurred.

Internal attribution

Explaining behavior based on personal traits.

External attribution

Explaining behavior based on situational factors.

Stability dimension

Whether a cause is stable or unstable over time.

Three-stage model of attribution

1) Observe behavior, 2) Make automatic dispositional inference, 3) Adjust for situational factors if motivated.

Fundamental attribution tendency

Tendency to favor dispositional explanations over situational ones.

Consensus

Do other people behave the same way?

Distinctiveness

Does the person behave this way in other situations?

Consistency

Does the person behave this way repeatedly?

High consensus

high distinctiveness, high consistency, External attribution.

Low consensus

low distinctiveness, high consistency, Internal attribution.

Fixed (entity) mindset

Belief that traits are stable and unchangeable.

Growth (incremental) mindset

Belief that traits can change with effort.

Meritocracy belief

Belief that success is earned solely through effort.

Counterfactual thinking

Thinking about what could have happened instead.

Upward counterfactual

Imagining a better outcome; feels worse now but can motivate improvement.

Downward counterfactual

Imagining a worse outcome; feels better now but may reduce motivation.

Ease of undoing

Events that are close calls or unusual are easier to mentally undo.

Six basic universal emotions

Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.

Emotion universality

Basic emotions are recognized across cultures.

Social constructionist view

Emotion meaning and expression vary across cultures.

Tight culture

Culture with strong norms and punishment for deviance.

Loose culture

Culture with weak norms and tolerance for deviance.

Collectivism

Emphasis on harmony and interdependence.

Individualism

Emphasis on independence and personal freedom.

Culture of honor

A culture where reputation is defended aggressively.

Master narratives

Cultural stories about how lives are supposed to unfold.

Stigma

Negative social labeling that harms well-being.