HSC 4555 Pathophysiology 1 Exam #1 Study Guide - Vocabulary Flashcards (Chs. 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10)

A comprehensive set of vocabulary-style flashcards covering core concepts from pathophysiology, cell injury, genetics, neoplasia, and immune/inflammatory processes as presented in the study guide.

Pathophysiology

The study of abnormalities in the physiologic functioning of living beings and the body’s responses to disruptions in its internal or external environment.

Etiology

Causes or reasons for a disease; causes can be idiopathic (unknown) or iatrogenic (from medical treatment).

Pathogenesis

Development and evolution of a disease from the initial stimulus to the final manifestation.

Clinical manifestations

Signs and symptoms; their stages and course in a disease.

Treatment implications

General strategies for treating a disease based on its cause and progression.

Multifactorial disease

A disease caused by multiple factors such as genetics, environment, and lifestyle (e.g., genetic predisposition, diet, smoking, hypertension, stress).

Iatrogenic

Originating from medical treatment or examination; a cause of disease due to healthcare.

Sign

An objective clinical finding observed by a clinician (e.g., fever, rash).

Symptom

A subjective experience reported by the patient (e.g., pain, fatigue).

Syndrome

A group of signs and symptoms that occur together to characterize a condition; etiology may be unknown.

Latent period

Time between exposure to an injurious agent and the first appearance of signs or symptoms.

Prodromal period

Early signs or symptoms that indicate the onset of a disease.

Acute phase

Phase of disease with maximum intensity and active signs/symptoms.

Remission

Period during which signs and symptoms subside or become less severe.

Exacerbation

Sudden increase in severity of disease or its signs/symptoms.

Convalescence

Recovery period after illness or injury.

Sequela

A secondary pathological condition that results from a previous disease.

Normal (reference range)

Baseline or reference values used to determine what is normal for a population or individual.

Positive predictive value

Probability that a disease is present when a test result is positive.

Negative predictive value

Probability that a disease is absent when a test result is negative.

Sensitivity

Probability that a test will be positive in a person who has the condition.

Specificity

Probability that a test will be negative in a person who does not have the condition.

Endemic

A disease regularly found among people in a local region.

Epidemic

A disease that spreads rapidly to many people in a community at the same time.

Pandemic

A disease that spreads across large geographic areas, often worldwide.

Secondary prevention

Measures to detect or prevent disease progression (e.g., screening).

Reversible cell injury

Cell injury that can be reversed if the irritant is removed; characterized by cell swelling and intracellular accumulation.

Irreversible cell injury

Cell injury that leads to cell death and cannot be reversed.

Oncosis (hydropic swelling)

Cellular swelling due to accumulation of water in the cell.

Intracellular accumulation

Excessive buildup of normal or abnormal substances within a cell.

Atrophy

A decrease in cell size leading to tissue shrinkage.

Hypertrophy

An increase in cell size (not number) often due to increased workload.

Hyperplasia

An increase in the number of cells leading to tissue enlargement.

Metaplasia

Replacement of one differentiated cell type with another.

Dysplasia

Disorderly, abnormal growth and maturation of cells.

Physiologic hypertrophy

Hypertrophy that occurs as a normal bodily response (e.g., skeletal muscle growth with exercise).

Pathologic hypertrophy

Hypertrophy due to disease processes (e.g., cardiac hypertrophy from hypertension).

Necrosis

Uncontrolled, pathological cell death due to injury.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death with minimal inflammation.

Coagulative necrosis

Most common form of necrosis; tissue architecture preserved for a period.

Gangrene

Necrosis of tissue due to loss of blood supply; types include dry, wet, and gas gangrene.

Ischemia

Lack of blood supply to tissue.

Hypoxia

Lack of sufficient oxygen reaching tissues.

Reperfusion injury

Additional tissue damage caused when blood supply returns to tissue after ischemia.

Nutritional deficiency

Inadequate intake, absorption, distribution, or utilization of nutrients.

Five causes of cellular injury

Ischemia/hypoxia, nutritional injury, infectious/immunologic injury, chemical injury, physical/mechanical injury.

Radiation effects

Radiation can cause genetic damage and acute cell destruction.

Aging vs disease processes

Aging is a gradual, cumulative process; disease involves specific pathologic processes.

Cellular aging basis

Cumulative cellular and molecular damage with reduced reparative capacity.

Free radical theory

Aging results from cumulative damage by reactive oxygen species and other free radicals.

Programmed senescence theory

Aging is driven by an intrinsic genetic program.

Chromosome number and pairs

Humans have 46 chromosomes, organized as 23 pairs.

Autosomes

22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes.

Sex chromosomes

The 23rd pair (X and Y) determining sex.

Aneuploidy

Abnormal number of chromosomes (not 46 in humans).

Down syndrome

Trisomy 21; an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Edwards syndrome

Trisomy 18.

Patau syndrome

Trisomy 13.

Klinefelter syndrome

Sex chromosome aneuploidy: 47,XXY.

Turner syndrome

Sex chromosome aneuploidy: 45,X.

Cri du Chat syndrome

Deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5.

Marfan syndrome

Autosomal dominant connective tissue disorder; mutations in fibrillin-1 gene (chromosome 15).

Huntington disease

Neurodegenerative genetic disorder affecting movement, cognition, and behavior.

Huntingtin

Protein produced by the HTT gene; abnormal forms cause Huntington disease.

Autosomal recessive disorders (examples)

Albinism, phenylketonuria (PKU), and cystic fibrosis.

X-linked disorders

Disorders on the X chromosome; males often express them due to having a single X.

Polygenic traits

Traits influenced by more than one gene (e.g., height, weight, intelligence).

Multifactorial traits

Traits influenced by genes and environment; do not have simple Mendelian patterns.

Teratogenic agents

Agents that disturb development, causing birth defects.

Teratogenesis weeks

Most susceptible during weeks 3–9 of embryonic development (especially 4th–5th weeks).

Neoplasia

New, abnormal growth of tissue—benign or malignant.

Benign tumor (oma)

Well-differentiated, noninvasive tumor with limited growth.

Malignant tumor terms

Carcinoma (epithelial), sarcoma (connective tissue), leukemia (blood/bone marrow).

Origins of malignant tumors

Carcinoma originates from epithelium; sarcoma from mesenchymal tissue; leukemia from blood-forming cells.

Benign vs malignant differentiation

Benign tumors are well-differentiated; malignant tumors are poorly differentiated or undifferentiated.

Cancer is the second leading cause of death

Second only to heart disease in mortality in the U.S.

Pathophysiology of malignant tumors

Cancer involves unchecked growth, invasion of surrounding tissue, metastasis, and angiogenesis.

Carcinogens

Agents that cause cancer.

Proto-oncogenes

Normal genes that control cell growth; mutations can convert them to oncogenes.

Oncogenes

Mutated proto-oncogenes that promote cancer development.

Tumor suppressor genes

Genes that normally restrain cell growth; loss leads to cancer (e.g., BRCA1/BRCA2).

Activation of proto-oncogenes

Activation can occur via viral integration, mutation, or gene amplification leading to cancer.

Tumor suppressor genes (examples)

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are key tumor suppressor genes.

Carcinogenesis steps

Initiation (DNA damage), Promotion (growth), Progression (cancer phenotype).

Metastasis routes

Spread of cancer cells via blood and lymphatic systems.

Tumor markers PSA/CA-125

Biomarkers used to indicate tissue of origin; PSA for prostate cancer, CA-125 for ovarian cancer.

Grading vs staging

Grading evaluates tumor cell differentiation; staging assesses tumor spread within the body.

Early detection prognosis

Early detection generally improves prognosis and cure potential.

Immune system components

Cells, tissues, and proteins that defend the body against invaders.

Leukocytes

White blood cells that mediate inflammation and immunity.

Self vs nonself antigens

Self antigens are tolerated by the immune system; nonself antigens trigger responses.

Monocytes origin

Derived from the bone marrow (myeloid lineage).

Bands (left shift)

Immature neutrophils released during infection or inflammation.

Lymphocytes

White blood cells involved in adaptive immunity (B and T cells) and NK cells in innate immunity.

T cells origin and maturation

Originate from bone marrow and mature in the thymus.

T cell subsets

Cytotoxic (CD8+), Helper (CD4+), Memory T cells.

B cells function

Produce antibodies as part of humoral immunity.

B cells origin and maturation

Origin in the bone marrow; mature in spleen/lymphoid tissue.

Plasma cells and memory B cells

Plasma cells secrete antibodies; memory B cells enable rapid response on re-exposure.

Innate defenses

Non-specific defenses that do not require prior exposure to an antigen.