midterm

How to minimize agricultural water use

drip irrigation, irrigation scheduling, and dry farming

how to reduce the negative impacts of conventional ag

organic farming (use insects as natural pesticides, hand weed fields, cover beds to prevent weed growth)

how to improve soil fertility

cover crops, compost and mulch

How to achieve sustainable farm labor

mechanization and proper provisions for farm laborers (water/rest breaks, shade, covid protection)

Why is BPSC 21 called California's cornucopia?

It is called California's cornucopia because California is regarded as a cornucopia, a symbol of abundant food source since it produces so much.

How does CA's agricultural production rank in the world?

CA has the 5th largest economy in the world, mostly due to its agriculture. It provides 2/3 of fruits and nuts, 1/3 of vegetables, and 81% of wine in the US.

How is food security defined?

"Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" 1996 World Food Summit

What are the four dimensions of food security?

1. Physical availability of food, 2. Economic and physical access to food, 3. Food utilization (food, safety, preparation, diversity), 4. The stability of the dimension 1, 2, and 3 over time (be stable tmrw, the next, etc.)

What is hunger? Is it wide spread?

1. Hunger is the uncomfortable to painful sensation caused by insufficient food energy consumption. It is wide spread, worldwide 821 million people were hungry in 2018

What is malnutrition?

Deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in consumption of macronutrients (protein, fats, carbs) and micronutrients (vitamins, minerals)

How are food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty linked?:

Food insecurity (due to low crop yields, bad quality [climate change, pests, pathogens, soils], diversity) is hunger and malnutrition --\> Leads to poor physical and cognitive development --\> Leads to low productivity --\> Leads to poverty

How do plant biologists try to break the food insecurity cycle?

Plant biologists can break the cycle by growing crops with high yields, better quality (resistant to climate change, pests, pathogens, soils), and grow with diversity (better for nutritional balance)

What two non-food issues contribute to food insecurity?

Conflict and Climate Shocks are major drivers of food insecurity. With conflict (war, civil unrest) there are high rates of food insecurity, and climate change leads to unpredictable and more frequent droughts, floods, etc. and this has led to spikes in food insecurity

What are the effects of the current COVID-19 pandemic on food insecurity?:

Covid has led to unemployment rates going up and this can increase poverty rates and overall increase the number of food insecure Americans

What resource on UCR's campus will help UCR students with food insecurity?

R'Pantry

What are the constraints to Ag production? (use info from lecture and readings):

Rising population, soil erosion, depletion of aquifers, rising temp, grain consumers going up

What are the goals of sustainable agriculture?

Must: Produce abundant and safe food, reduce of harmful enjoinments inputs, minimize the use of land and water, safe working conditions, protect genetic makeup of native species, enhance crop diversity, fosters soil fertility, improves lives of poor and malnourished, maintains the economic viability of farming and rural communities

What farm gate value?

Market value of a cultivated product (agriculture or aquaculture) MINUS the selling costs (transport, marketing) California makes 13% of US's farm gate value

What is the difference between crops and specialty crops?:

Crops are plants that are cultivated for sale of subsistent. Specialty crops are fruits and vegetables, tree nuts, dried fruits and horticulture and nursery crops included floriculture (flour)

What six crops are solely or primarily produced in CA?:

(specialty crops) Clingstone peaches, walnuts, almonds, artichokes, pomegranates, and cherimoyas

How many different crops does CA produce?

Over 400 different crops

What are the seven food crops that are top value in CA? Hint: 3 nut crops, 2 fruit crops, 2 vegetable crops

1. Dairy, 2. Almonds, 3. Grapes, 4. Cattle and calves, 5. Strawberries, 6. Pistachios, 7. Lettuce, 8. Walnut

What is the top cash value crop that is not food?:

Marijuana

What are the top three crops in terms of land area planted?:

1. Alfalfa, 2. Grapes, 3. Almonds

What is the relationship between UCR and the Citrus Experiment Station?:

The Citrus Experiment Station was placed in Riverside as the 2nd UC campus for research on their citrus. As time went on, UC added College of Letters and Sciences for undergrad and then graduate divisions This turned it into the UCR we know today.

Where did the Selecta Orange originate? How did it get to CA?:

The "Selecta" orange came from South East Asia and travelled to Brazil, where it was found by USDA and they sent hundreds of seedlings to Florida. None survived enough to harvest, but Eliza Tibbet requested and was sent 3 plants and 2 survived.

What role did Eliza Tibetts play with the citrus industry?:

She essentially started the citrus business in Riverside. She planted the Washington Navel Orange "parent" tree, starting the Navel Orange citrus business (seedless).

Where does the parent Washington Navel orange now reside?

The parent Washington Navel orange tree now resides at the corner of Arlington and Magnolia.

What are the three vegetative parts of a plant? Or a tree?:

Roots, stem, leaves (photosynthesis)

What are the three reproductive parts of a plant?

Flower (reproductive organs that attract pollinators), fruit (provides/holds seeds, seeds protect the embryo and help it grow), seeds

Where are seeds located?:

Seeds reside in the fruit of a flowering plant (angiosperm) or the ovules.

What do fruits do for the plant?

Fruits provides seeds, holds the seeds. It also protects the seeds and helps spread them by being attractive to small animals who eat them. They can be fleshy (like oranges, tomatoes) or dry (peanuts, strawberries)

What is an achene?:

EX: Strawberry. It is a small, dry one-seeded fruit that does not open to release the seed

Can you describe the 7 steps in the life cycle of a plant?

1. Flower is pollinated, 2. Pollen sticks to pistil and the pollen tube grows into ovule, 3. Sperm fertilizes egg cell, 4. Egg cell becomes the embryo, 5. Embryo turns into seed, 6. Seeds drops, 7. Seed grows into new plant

What is pollination?:

Transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma

What is fertilization?:

Occurs through pollination. When one sperm cell fuses with the egg inside an ovule. After fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed

How can you make a navel orange tree if it does not produce seeds?:

You can make it by grafting. A plant created by grafting is called a Chimera. This occurs by The tissues of plants (xylem [brings water up from roots] and phloem [carries nutrients from leaves to roots] ) are joined so as to continue their growth together and the scion and rootstock are combined. (Scion at the top, rootstock at bottom). It makes for a better commercial and stronger (less prone to diseases) plant

What is a root stock and scion?:

The top part of a Chimera plant, provides the fruit and leaves (photosynthetic properties). This is grafted onto the rootstock. The Rootstock is the bottom of the plant, provides a healthy root and stem.

Why is clonal propagation (grafting) useful?

Clonal Propagation (grafting) is useful because it helps create plants that are commercially better (like seedless oranges) and are healthier/stronger and less prone to diseases.

Can you describe the basic steps of grafting?:

You take the scion (top part of plant like leaves, fruit, etc.) and the rootstock of a different plant (root, stem) to create a healthy fusion. Once combined, the xylem (carries water from foots to leaves) and phloem (carries nutrients from leaves to roots) also fuse and work together to keep the plant alive. There is usually a tie around to support these two systems, especially the water flowing from the roots to the leaves.

Do gymnosperms have seeds, flowers, or fruits?:

A gymnosperm is a plant that has seeds unprotected by an ovary or fruit. AKA naked seeds, no flowers and no fruits. Reproductive structures are cones

What is the Pine nut syndrome (\= pine mouth)? Does it impact everyone?:

First identified in 2001 in Chinese pine nuts. 1-3 days after consumption, some people develop a bitter or metallic taste that persists for 2-6 weeks. It can affect everyone who chooses to eat pine nuts since there may be Chinese White Pine (note; these pines have a dark tip)

Are most food plants gymnosperms, angiosperms or non-seed plants?:

Most of our food plants are Angiosperms

How many progenitor species are there for citrus?:

There are 5 progenitor species for citrus. They are Kumquats (Fortunella spp Citrus), Small-flowered Papeda (Micrantha), Criton (Medica), Pummelos (Maxima), and Mandarins (Reticulata)

What have citrus breeders done to make the wide variety of citrus we have today?:

They have used grafting and genetic crossing

How was the tango mandarin made? Why is Tango so valuable?

Created by UCR's Mikeal Roose in 2011. They are a seedless W. Murcott citrus plant (the W. Murcott plant is a sweet orange x mandarin cross). Tango is so valuable because they are seedless, small, and sweet

How does CA rank in citrus production? Is CA different from Florida?:

CA is \#1 for fresh market citrus, fresh market oranges, lemon, limes, mandarins, and kumquats. Florida is \#1 for juicing oranges

What disease has decimated citrus industry?

The Huanglongbing (HLB) disease is decimating the citrus industry

How is the HLB pathogen transmitted to citrus trees?

The HLB pathogen is transmitted through the Asian Citrus Psyllid (ACP). ACP is a bacterium plant pathogen that resides in the phloem. It spreads HLB and causes citrus greening (yellow dragon disease)

How did HLB arrive to CA?:

HLB arrived in CA when an infected citrus scion from China was brought into CA and grafted to a tree. The diseased tree was in San Gabriel Valley (Hacienda Heights

How has CA tried to prevent HLB spread

CA attempts to prevent the spread of HLB by quarantining and eradicating trees. They impose regional quarantines and regulations for movement of citrus in CA. It hasn't stopped, but UCR are finding new ways to detect and control HLB disease

How is the parent Washington Navel tree protected from HLB?:

The tree is protected by being tented/covered so as to protect it from ACP and thus HLB

Are there more species or plant families?

Yes, there are 400 plant families and 300,000 species

The genus Citrus is in which plant family?:

The Citrus is in the Rutaceae family.

Can you describe the general process of domestication?

The process/cycle of planting and selecting for desired traits to improve crops so that they have better performance and better tasting

Is avocado an angiosperm? Why?:

An avocado is an angiosperm because it comes from a flower

The avocado belongs to which plant family?:

The avocado belongs to the Lauraceae family

How many seeds does an avocado have?:

An avocado has one seed, making it a drupe

Where is avocado's Center of Domestication?:

The avocado's center of domestication was in South-Central Mexico

What is grafting? What are the reasons for grafting avocado?:

Grafting is fusing two different/similar plants to create a stronger/better quality Chimera. The reason for grafting avocados was because it took 8-20 years to produce fruits naturally whereas grafted avocado plants took 1-2 years.

What were the problems with Fuerte avocado variety?

The Fuerte avocados suffered from alternate bearing so the avocados had dry years and could not be put in markets. This led to new varieties being made to fill in for the Fuerte avocados.

Can you describe alternate bearing and its economic impacts? What triggers alternate bearing in avocado?

Caused by (usually) envoirmental stress (like a freeze) which makes fruit drop (loss of a crop) and the trees synchronize. After one bad year with a drop, the next year will produce lots of flowers and fruits, BUT the following year will resemble the freeze and lose crops. Avocados do this (especially Fuerte avocados). This, for the economy, causes one good year with markets flooding and prices are low/affordable and the next (bad year) with a low harvest and prices are high but not enough for a profit

What other crops suffer from alternate bearing?

Avocados, apples, apricots, mandarins, olives, pecans, and pistachios

What is the difference between fruit maturity and ripening?

Fruit maturity is when they are full size (or shortly after) and can be picked (but after picked it needs to ripen). A ripe fruit is ready to be eaten.

What occurs in climacteric fruit ripening? Non-climacteric fruit ripening?:

Climeratic fruit, fruits that must be picked after they mature so they can ripen (climax --\> not finished yet), go through a spike in (1) cellular respiration (CO2) and (2) a burst of ethylene (a ripening hormone) when ripening. Non-climeratic fruits are ripe (edible and tasty) about the same time they are mature

What is monoculture and why can it cause problems for a crop?

Monoculture is the extensive planting of a single species or single genotype (like Hass avocado after the downfall of Fuerte, 80% of all avocados are Hass). Monoculture can become dangerous because it is uniformly susceptible to diseases (like Irish potatoes blight). If you don't have a variety, you will lose all the crops.

How is yield linked to outcrossing?

Yield increases when there is outcrossing, meaning more diversity causes more fruits so if there is a monoculture, there is less fertilization/fruit yielded. As Hass acreage goes up (monoculture), yields go down because the avocados want outcrossing.

Can you draw a cartoon of a perfect flower and label the parts?:

perianth --\> calyx (sepal), corolla (petal). Androecium --\> anther, stamen, filament. Gynoecium --\> stigma, style, ovary, ovule.

What is Whole Tree Sexual Synchrony in avocados?:

Whole tree sexual synchrony means (for avocados) at any given time, almost all flowers on an avocado tree (and even a cultivar [made]) are all sexually synchronized. So, morning flowers (type a) --\> all flowers would be female or male and afternoon flowers (type b) --\> vice versa (male or female)

What is the difference between Type A and Type B cultivars?

1. Type A (morning flowers) are Hass and Reed. Type B (afternoon flowers) are Bacon, Fuerte, and Zutano. Type A mates with Type B and Type B mates with Type A --\> Type A dominates and Type B became rare.

What is an imperfect flower?:

An imperfect flower is a flower that is not "bisexual". Only has male or female parts.

What is the difference between a species being monoecious vs dioecious?:

Monoecious are imperfect flowers on the same plant; If separate male and female flowers occur on the same plant, this is monoecy (this occurs in walnuts). Dioecious means "Two Houses", there are male plants and female plants. Must have plants with male and female flowers in close proximity, not same plant. Kiwi is this, male and female reproductive organs are separated by space (on diff flowers)

What is a drupe?

A simple fleshy fruit that usually contains a SINGLE seed (like cheery). Derived from the single ovary of an individual flower. They are indehiscent (the fruit doesn't open).

What kind of a fruit is citrus?

A citrus is a berry with a leathery rind (called a hesperidium)

What kind of a fruit is avocado?:

An avocado is a drupe

What other foods come from the Lauraceae family?:

Other members of the Lauraceae are Cinnamomum Cassia "Cinnamon", Cinnamomum Verum "Ceylon Cinnamon Tree", Laurus Nobilis "True Bay Leaf", and Umbellularia Californica "California Bay Leaf

What is the ranking of alfalfa relative to area planted in CA? ranking relative to alfalfa seed production? Is it a top 10 value crop?

It is \#1

Where is alfalfa's origin (center of domestication)?:

It's center of origin is South-Central Asia

What is a perennial plant vs an annual plant? Is alfalfa a perennial or annual?:

Perennial \= Plants live two or more years. An annual plant lives for only one growing season. Alfalfa is a plant (perennial) that lives for 2 or more years.

What is a "botanical" herb?

Herb \= Non-woody plant. Any plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers.

What is the family of plants that alfalfa belongs too? Can you name some other common foods that are in this family?:

Alfalfas belongs to the Fabaceae \= Leguminosae \= Legume Family. They are a very important family and the 3rd largest family of flowering plants (751+ genera, 19,500+ species). Other plants are beans, peas, peanuts, soybeans. Etc

What is name of alfalfa's fruit? How many carpels? One or more ovules?:

It's fruit type is a Legume: One carpel, dry, opening along 2 sutures. It has more than one (several) ovules

What is the difference between a simple and compound leaf? Can you draw a simple leaf and label parts? Can you draw a compound leaf and label its parts?:

A simple leaf is undivided (like a single leaf like in an orange) whereas a compound leaf blade is divided into several leaflets (one leaf has many leaflets

What is an inflorescence? Alfalfa's flowers are perfect or imperfect?

An inflorescence has individual flowers arranged on a floral stem. Alfalfa's flowers are usually bisexual (so yes, perfect

If you were given a photo of a flower, can you determine if it has bilateral or radial symmetry? Is there a botanical term for bilateral and radial symmetry, respectively

Bilateral symmetry \= Zygomorphic and Radial Symmetry \= Actinomorphic

Why don't we eat alfalfa hay? Why shouldn't we eat an excess of alfalfa sprouts?:

We cannot eat alfalfa hay because we cannot process/digest it correctly and if consumed in excess, it can impair immunity (lupus-linked)

What forms of alfalfa are used to feed agricultural animals?:

It's used at hay to feed animals. It's known as a forage crop when it's used like this

Alfalfa is both a forage and cover crop. Do you know the difference? Why is alfalfa a great cover crop?

As a forage crop, alfalfa feeds pasture animals. It feeds, hogs, cattle, and sheep because it has high nutrients, high yields, persistent, and adaptive, making it best to forage. As a cover crop, alfalfa is harvested/planted to improve soil. It's great because alfalfa has long tap roots and helps stabilize soils and prevent erosion. "Green manure" is what it is known as. When planted, mulched and turned into the soil. Alfalfa enriches the N content of the soil

What are the advantages of crop rotation? Why are legumes advantageous in crop rotation strategies?

Crop rotation is alternating a plant (Legumes/Alfalfa) with other crops in order to increase accessible soil nutrition and yield of succeeding non-legume crops like potatoes, cucumber, lettuce, corn, etc. It also prevents the soil from being populated with disease-causing insects, nematodes and microbes. The developing world loses 40% of its food to pathogens and pests without alfalfa.

Legumes have a relationship with soil bacteria that "fix" nitrogen. Can you describe the Nitrogen cycle and the impact that legumes have on this cycle?:

Legumes can fix N, meaning they can convert useable N2 into nitrates that can be used by plants as food. The nitrogen cycle then works like this: 1. Legume (like alfalfa) has nitrogen fixing bacteria in roots, 2. Nitrates are created from decayed bacteria (from animal waste and dead plants), and this is in soil that creates plants and releases N2, 3. These plants help feed.

What are the three classes of macronutrients? What are the five chemical elements that are in macronutrients?

3 classes: Proteins, Fats, and Carbohydrates and 5 elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur

What functions do proteins have in cells? What building blocks are proteins made of?:

Proteins are the major structural compounds in animals (keratin- skin, nails, hair). All plants and animals' enzymes are proteins. Made up of C, H, O, N, and S. Proteins are polymers of amino acids

When proteins function as enzymes, what do they do? How does an enzyme recognize the molecule that it acts upon

Enzymes are the major chemical catalyst of cells --\> make chemical reactions go fast. An enzyme uses a lock and key model where if (ex) compound A fits enzyme A, compound A will work as a 'substrate' and bind to the enzyme forming an 'enzyme-substrate complex'. This then breaks the glucose-fructose bond and releases glucose and fructose

Insulin is an extremely important small protein (peptide) that regulates glucose levels in our blood. In general terms can you tell me what insulin does for glucose levels inside cells?:

It controls sugar levels in the blood by regulating glucose uptake by cells. 1. Insulin is made in pancreas and owned by insulin receptor, 2. This tells cells to move glucose from blood into cell, 3. Glucose is polermized to make glycogen, 4. Glucose can also make fatty acids (stored energy and membrane), 5. Glucose can be "burned" to make energy through respiration

What is diabetes? What is the difference between Type I and Type II diabetes?

Diabetes is an insulin disease where glucose is not imported to cells and cells start to starve. Type 1: Insuffiency insulin is made and Type 2: Cells are insulin resistant (9.4% of Americans suffer) but it can be managed and prevented

What are the polymers glycogen and fatty acids? Why do cells make these storage molecules? If glycogen and fatty acids are broken down, what do they supply to the cell?:

Glycogen and fatty acids are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are energy storing compounds made to store energy. When broken down, glycogen makes glucose

What are fats? What function do they have in the cell?

Fats and oils are the major stored energy source in plants and animals.

When you have three fatty acids attached to a glycerol, what type of molecule do you have?

When you have 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol, you have a triacylglycerol molecule

Fats have different shapes, which provide different cellular properties. What are the three different classes of fats?

Saturated, Unsaturated, and Trans.

What is an "essential" fatty acid? What foods do we get omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids from?:

An essential fatty acid are the fatty acids humans cannot make. Humans make all their required fatty acids alone except 2: Omega-6 (Linoleic Acid) and Omega-3 (Alpha-Linoleic) --\> These are made up when eating fish, nuts, or seeds.