sects, cults, new religious movements, and new age movements

when can the first sects be traced back to (Bruce)

the Reformation

what are some reasons that have been given for the growth of sects

* breakaway movements from established churches
* stratification
* relative deprivation
* social change

what does it mean that sects may be formed as breakaway movements from established churches

due to the tendency of churches to compromise their beliefs and become integrated with the modern world, many people feel as though it is no longer faithful to its traditional values and beliefs; thus they form sects that demand intense commitment and rejection of secular society

what type of religious movements are likely to be formed as breakaway movements from established churches, demanding devotion and rejection of secular society

religious fundamentalist groups and world-rejecting NRMs

what is an example of the church no longer being faithful to its traditional values and beliefs

the Pope has married cohabiting people

what is a criticism of the idea that sects form as breakaway movements from churches

this cycle may have occurred historically, but today sects appear to be created by those who are outside of a church

what is an example of a sect that was created by someone outside of a church

The People’s Temple

who formed The People’s Temple

Jim Jones

what is stratification

the process by which society is divided into unequal social groups

which sociologist argued that sects are more likely to form among those marginal groups at the bottom of the social hierarchy

Weber

why did Weber argue that sects are more likely to form among marginalised groups

they develop a theodicy of disprivilege, and whereas Churches tend to represent those with power and privilege, sects tend to support those without

the exclusiveness of the sect may also give a feeling of superiority and enlightenment, and a promise of salvation, to those who may not have economic and social capital

what is a theodicy of disprivilege (Weber)

a religious explanation and justification of why people are in their social positions

what example does Weber give to explain his theory on the development of sects within marginalised groups

he argues that Christianity formed in opposition to the state religion of the Roman Empire

what is an example of an American sect that formed due to the marginalisation of its members

Black Muslims

* this formed during the 1960s, against the backdrop of the civil rights movement and thus political unrest
* Black Muslims were experiencing economic and social deprivation and denied any real hope of change by the political system

what were the beliefs of the Black Muslim movement

black people were seen as divine and white people were seen as inferior

what was the lifestyle of the Black Muslim movement like

value is placed on hard work and a strict moral code

what did the Black Muslim sect offer its members

a sense of purpose and raising expectations

which sociologist outlined reasons for marginalisation that may lead to the formation of a sect

Wilson

what are some examples of factors that Wilson argued could lead to a feeling of marginalisation

* defeat in war
* natural disaster
* economic collapse

what did Weber also argue was essential to the formation of a sect, alongside underprivilege

a charismatic leader

what is a criticism of Weber’s argument that sects form due to marginalisation

one of the distinguishing features of the NRMs that emerged in the 1960s and 70s was that they attracted relatively affluent, white, middle class people - a group not normally associated with being on the margins of society, but rather a group that felt there was ‘something missing’

if economic deprivation is insufficient for explaining the development of sects (a large proportion of membership is relatively affluent), what can be used to explain their origin instead

relative deprivation

what is relative deprivation

this is a subjective feeling of deprivation in which you feel deprived in comparison to others around you

this has been used to explain the attraction of affluent, middle class youth to sects

in what ways might people (especially the middle class) feel deprived if not economically

spirituality and socially

what does it mean that sects form as a response to social change

in a situation of change and uncertainty, sects offer the warmth and support of a strong community

which theory would argue that sects form as a response to social change and why

functionalism - because this argument suggests that religion creates social solidarity

how does Wilson explain the growth of sects as due to social change

Wilson linked the growth of sects to the movement from a ‘Gemeinschaft’ type of society to a ‘Gesellschaft’ type of society

the transition from one to another led to a decline in religion, except sects. which provide a haven of community in the impersonal modern world

what is a Gemeinschaft society (Wilson)

a cohesive society based on shared values

what is a Gesellschaft society (Wilson)

a society in which the social bonds that unite people are voluntary and based on self-interest; it is impersonal

what is an example of a religious movement forming due to social change

Methodism emerged due to the social change of industrialisation

what is a type of social change in modern society that may have actually led to the formation of new religious movements, contradicting itself

secularisation

how does Bruce argue that cults may be more popular in a secular society

they require fewer sacrifices and less commitment

what does Wallis argue has caused the emergence of world-rejecting NRMs

rationalisation - this refers to the way that life has become organised on instrumental considerations and there has been a loss of mystery (disenchantment)

what example does Wallis give of world-rejecting NRMs forming in response to rationalisation

young people in America in the 1960s and 70s embraced the counter culture of the 60s, which was characterised by political protest, alternative lifestyles, the hippie movement but these attempts to change society failed

some young people committed to change recognised that more than human effort was needed so many were open to religious movements committed to divine intervention (e.g. ISKCON and Children of God)

why did the counter culture of the 1960s fail to change society

the hippie movement descended into drugs (Young’s idea of deviancy amplification) and their protests became repressed by the police

what is ISKCON also known as

Hare Krishna

how does Wallis explain the growth of world-affirming NRMs

they are rooted in the values associated with capitalism

capitalism creates aspiration (e.g. to wealth, power, prestige, and achievement)

however, many people experience strain and find it hard to reach these goals

world-affirming NRMs provide the key/ knowledge to close the gap

how do world-affirming NRMs provide the key/ knowledge to allow people to reach the goals of capitalism

* people can learn how to increase their abilities to reach goals (e.g. Scientology)
* people learn that the present is the only moment and therefore they must celebrate what they already have (e.g. Human Potential, Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh)

who does Wallis argue tends to turn to world-accommodating NRMs

those who have a substantial stake in society but nevertheless have reasons for being dissatisfied with existing religions

what is a criticism of all theories on the emergence of NRMs

the focus on NRMs has been in the West from the 1960s onwards but this fails to recognise the more global nature of NRMs

what do surveys show the main membership of NAMs as

female, middle class, well educated, middle age

who does Bruce argue is most attracted to NAMs

‘the university educated middle classes working in the expressive professions’

why do some sociologists argue that NAMs are a product of postmodern society

* postmodernity is characterised by choice and consumption and NAMs allow people to be ‘spiritual shoppers’
* the postmodern world rejects modern rationality and metanarratives
* the modern, scientific world is seen as a failure (e.g. due to global warming) and so people turn to NAMs such as New Science
* postmodernity is an era of relativism

what is meant by the idea that postmodernity is an era of relativism

there are no absolute truths and therefore no one belief system can hold a monopoly of the truth

why do some sociologists argue that NAMs are a product of late modernity

because of the individualism of late modernity

which sociologist argues that there is an increased emphasis on individualism in NAMs

Heelas

what does individualism lead to

people becoming disembedded, desituated, or detraditionalised (they have no roots in locality and no unquestioning faith in religious or political codes)

what are the different types of individualism identified by Heelas

utilitarian and expressive

what is utilitarian individualism and how does it link to the New Age

this is individualism that encourages people to seek happiness and success; it links to the consumerism of the New Age

what is expressive individualism and how does it link to the New Age

its key focus is on how to be yourself and thus it is linked to the inner directed side of the New Age

what are the four ways that Heelas links modernity to the new age

* modernity creates different roles
* consumerism
* social change
* decline of traditional religion

how does modernity creating new roles link to the New Age

because there is very little overlap between these roles (e.g. people are unlikely to live close to workmates), people have a fragmented identity and the New Age offers a new way for people to find identity

how does consumerism link to the new age

consumerism creates discontent (i.e. we fail to find perfection) and the New Age offers new ways to find this perfection

how does social change link to the new age

social change creates uncertainty and people can seek certainty in the New Age

how does the decline of traditional religion link to the new age

the decline of traditional religion leaves people without a strong spiritual alternative and the new age can provide this

in his later work (2005) what did Heelas et al locate the growth of the new age as part of

the spiritual revolution in modern society - there has been a ‘massive turn’ in Western culture from life-as to subjective-life

what is life-as

life is dominated by external roles (such as employee, spouse etc); they represent a higher authority and are often supported by more traditional religion

what is subjective-life

the focus here is on inner feelings; ‘not to defer to higher authority, but to have the courage to become one’s own authority

how can globalisation lead to the growth of NRMs

technology links people and societies across the world, meaning people have access to more religions so they can find one which truly suits their personality

how can protest lead to the growth of NRMs

people can join religious groups so that they can protest against their government or against the state of their society

what is the term for a religion relaxing some of its beliefs

internal secularisation

what are the three main themes that Bruce recognises in the new age

new science, new ecology, new psychology and spirituality

what is new science

NAMs are in conflict with rational science and accept claims that don’t have empirical evidence

what is new ecology

NAMs see the planet as a living organism and recognise that everything people do has implications for animals, the climate etc

how do the beliefs of new ecology influence the ways people live

vegetarian, self-sufficiency, and conservation

what is new psychology and spirituality

where there is considerable emphasis on the self and the spirit; there is focus on self-improvement and finding the inner self

what two themes does Heelas identify in the new age

self spirituality and detraditionalisation

what is self spirituality

searching for spirituality involves looking inside yourself; salvation does not come from a God but by discovering and perfecting yourself

what is detraditionalisation

the value of personal experience above ‘truths’ from scientists, conventional religious leaders etc…

what three levels of commitment does Heelas identify in the new age

* the fully engaged
* the serious part-timers
* casual part-timers

what are fully engaged members of the new age

those who give up a conventional lifestyle on the search of the spiritual quest

what are some examples of fully engaged new age movements

New Age travellers and residents at Findhorn

what are serious part timers in the new age

those who live conventional lives but devote considerable time and effort to the activities of the new age

what are casual part-timers in the new age

those who dip in and out, often as consumers

what class does Bruce argue is most drawn to the new age

it appeals mostly to affluent members of society

why does Bruce argue that affluent members of society are drawn to the new age

they are more likely to be those exposed to a belief in individualism because their ‘work causes them to have an articulate interest in human potential’

which gender is the new age most popular with

women

why are NAMs more popular with women

* traditionally women are seen as naturally different to men and more in tune with the natural rhythms of life
* Woodhead argues that women feel double alienation in the family and NAMs can offer a chance for self-exploration and identity
* women, especially middle class women and stay at home mums, may have more time and money to be able to access the rather expensive and various new age therapies
* NAMs are mainly run by women who primarily seem to market their products and services to other women

what does Woodhead mean by the idea that women experience double alienation in the family

the family fails to give them a sense of occupational identity but they are dissatisfied with their limited housewife role

why do some people argue that NAMs cannot be considered a religious organisation

* there is no evidence of supernatural power
* no evidence of collective worship
* there is little evidence of the new age providing a unifying force; instead it is very individualistic

what are some criticisms of the new age

* it is difficult to operationalise membership (individuals drift in and out and are often interested in more than one element at a time)
* few individuals who are interested in it would consider themselves part of an organisation
* Bruce argues that they have low impact (few people order their lives in terms of the new age movement)