U.S. History: Chinese Immigration, Industrialization, and Westward Expansion

What was the role of Chinese immigrants in building the Transcontinental Railroad?

Chinese laborers performed the most dangerous work for the Central Pacific Railroad, such as dynamiting through the Sierra Nevada, but faced lower pay and harsh discrimination both during and after construction.

What was the legal and social impact of the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)?

It was the first U.S. law to ban immigration by nationality, suspending Chinese labor migration and fueling racial discrimination, though courts upheld birthright citizenship in Wong Kim Ark (1898).

How did Chinese immigrants resist exclusion and discrimination?

They used the courts to challenge discriminatory laws, formed mutual aid societies, and maintained cultural enclaves (Chinatowns) to preserve community and economic independence.

How did titans of industry like Rockefeller and Carnegie transform the economy?

They used consolidation strategies—horizontal and vertical integration—to build massive monopolies, dramatically increasing production but also leading to vast wealth inequality and worker exploitation.

What was the philosophy of Social Darwinism and its counterpart, the Gospel of Wealth?

Social Darwinism justified inequality as "survival of the fittest," while Carnegie's Gospel of Wealth argued the rich had a moral duty to philanthropically improve society.

How did workers respond to industrialization and what were the major strikes?

Workers formed unions like the AFL for collective bargaining; major strikes included the violent Railroad Strike of 1877 and the Haymarket Affair, which sparked anti-union backlash.

How did the government first attempt to regulate big business?

Through the Interstate Commerce Act (1887), which regulated railroads, and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), which aimed to prevent monopolies but was initially used against unions.

How did "Old" and "New" Immigration differ in origin and reception?

Old immigrants came from Northern/Western Europe and were more accepted; New immigrants came from Southern/Eastern Europe and Asia, facing stronger nativism and calls for restriction.

What were the main processing centers for immigrants and how did they differ?

Ellis Island processed Europeans with medical/legal checks; Angel Island processed Asians more harshly with detention and intensive interrogations.

How did settlement houses and Americanization programs try to assimilate immigrants?

Settlement houses like Hull House provided social services and English classes to help immigrants adapt, while also promoting American customs and civic loyalty.

What was the purpose and impact of the Dawes Severalty Act (1887)?

It aimed to assimilate Native Americans by breaking up tribal lands into individual plots, but instead resulted in the loss of millions of acres and the erosion of tribal culture.

What events marked the end of armed Native American resistance on the Plains?

The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) was a temporary victory, but the massacre at Wounded Knee (1890) crushed the Ghost Dance movement and ended major armed conflict.

How did U.S. policy shift from treaties to forced assimilation?

Early treaties like Fort Laramie recognized tribal sovereignty, but later policies like the Dawes Act and boarding schools sought to destroy Native culture and force American farming lifestyles.

What challenges did farmers face on the Great Plains?

They dealt with drought, debt, railroad monopolies, falling crop prices, and harsh weather like the "Children's Blizzard" of 1888, which led to economic desperation.

How did farmers organize to address their grievances?

They formed the Grange to fight railroad rates and later the Populist Party, which advocated for bimetallism, government ownership of railroads, and a graduated income tax.

What was the significance of new farming technology?

Innovations like barbed wire, steel plows, and mechanical reapers enabled farming on the tough Plains soil and facilitated the rise of large-scale commercial agriculture.

What were the main effects of the Transcontinental Railroad?

It connected eastern and western markets, spurred western settlement and mining, and hastened the decline of Plains Indians by enabling buffalo hunting and troop movement.

How was the Transcontinental Railroad financed and built?

It was funded by government land grants and bonds under the Pacific Railway Acts, built by the Union Pacific (west from Omaha) and Central Pacific (east from Sacramento) railroads.

What was the impact of the railroad on Native Americans and the environment?

It divided tribal lands, accelerated buffalo extermination, brought waves of settlers, and polluted and transformed the western landscape.