Artic and Phono Exam 2 CHP 4-5

Phonological Develpoment

Phonological Develpoment

refers to the acquisition of speech sound form and function within the language system.

Phonological Development Implies

the acquisition of a functional sound system intricately connected to the child's overall growth in language

Speech Sound Development Refers

primarily to the gradual articulatory mastery of speech
sound forms within a given language

Respiratory System

shape, size, and composition of respiratory system are dramatically modified from infancy to adulthood

Respiratory system- alveoli in newborn

Only 1/3 to ½ of the alveoli are present in the lungs of the newborn

breathing rate at birth

Rest breathing is
approximately 30-
80 breaths per
minute

breathing rate 1.5 to 3 years

decreases about 20-30 breaths per minute
-Respiratory
control increasingly supports the
production of longer utterances during this time frame.
-The number of alveoli increases rapidly, beginning to approximate adultlike values at the end of this period

breathing rate 7-8 years old

Rest breathing is
approximately 20
breaths per minute

In newborns the larynx and vocal tract are

unable to fulfill any secondary functions
(articulation of speech sounds) that occur
in addition to the life-supporting ones
(swallowing)

In newborns the arytenoid cartilages and large posterior portion of the cricoid cartilage

disproportionately large when compared to an adult larynx

The infant's larynx sits closely

under the angle between neck and chin

This high position of the larynx does not allow

vocal tract to be effectively elongated
• Elongation is needed for resonating effects during vowels

PHONATORY AND RESONATORY
newborn changes

1. The thyroid cartilage enlarges more than the cricoid cartilage
2. The epiglottis becomes larger and firmer
3. The arytenoid cartilages, which were relatively large in the early stages of this
development now change little in size; they adapt structurally and functionally to the
growth of the other laryngeal structures
4. The vocal and ventricular folds (true and false folds) lengthen. This has the effect that
more of the vocal folds' muscular portion is now freed for normal vocal cord vibration

Articulatory changes- newborn

• Enlargement of the skull and laryngeal areas during childhood occurs mostly in posterior and ventricular directions
• This allows the velum more room and thus more mobility
• The tongue no longer completely fills the mouth
• The tongue and lips become elongated and acquire further mobility
• The fine-tuning and coordination of the lip, mandible, tongue and velar movements for regular voice and speech production are now increasingly acquired

Prelinguistic Behavior-

Vocalization prior to the first true words

Linguistic Develpoment

starts with the appearance of the first words

Stage 1- Reflexive crying and vegetative sounds (birth to 2 months)

• This stage is characterized by a large proportion of
reflexive vocalizations
• Cries, coughs, grunts, burps that seem automatic
responses reflecting the physical state of the infant

Stage 2- Cooing and Laughter (2-4 months)

• Cooing and gooing sounds are produced
during comfortable states
• Vowel—like, also contain brief periods of consonantal elements that are produced at
the back of the mouth (nasalized vowels)
• At 16 weeks, sustained laughter emerges

Stage 3- Vocal Play (4 to 6 months)

• Distinguishing characteristic of stage 3 includes longer series of segments and the production of vowel or consonant like steady states
• Produces extreme variations in loudness and pitch

Stage 4- Canonical Babbling (6 months and older)

• Canonical babbling includes reduplicated and non-reduplicated
babbling
• Most children continue to babble into the time when they say their first words

Reduplicated Babbling

Similar strings of CV productions
ex: mɑmɑ

Non-Deduplicated Babbling or Variegated Babbling

variations of both
consonants and vowels from syllable to syllable
ex bɑ-ət

Beginning of stage 4

babbling is used in a self-stimulatory
manner; it is not used to communicate to adults
• This is the beginning of imitative behavior which is an important
milestone

Stage 5- Jargon Stage (10 months and older)

• This babbling stage overlaps with the
first meaningful words
• Characterized by strings of babbled
utterances that are modulated
primarily by intonation, rhythm, and pausing
• It sounds as if a child is actually attempting sentences but without actual words

Vocoids

Front and central
vocoids were found to be favored over high and back vocoids [ɛ] [ɪ] [ʌ}

Conotoids

Predominate in the late
babbling stage
Most common [h] [d]
[b] [m] [t] [g] [w}

Syllable Shapes

During the later babbling periods, open syllables are still the most frequent type

Babbling and its Relationship to Later Language Development:

• Babbling behavior is one aspect of early
communication that is emerging as a
predictor of later language ability
• Both the quantity and the diversity of
vocalizations do indeed play a role in
later language development

Prosodic features are

linguistic units
occurring across segments that are used to influence what we say

Prosodic patterns continue to

diversify toward the end of the babbling period - jargon sounds like adult intonation patterns, giving the impression of sentences without words

Initially, infants employ

intonation, rhythm, and pausing

How Babbling and Early Words are SIMILAR

1. Primarily monosyllabic utterances
2. Frequent use of stop consonants followed by nasals and fricatives
3. Bilabial and apical productions
4. Rare use of consonant clusters
5. Frequent use of central, mid-front

How babbling and first words are DIFFERENT

1. A large diversity exists among children's productions in each of the areas investigated (phonetic tendencies, consonant & vowel
inventories, & word selection)
2. Most of the children used voiced stops in babbling but not in words; [g] was the most prominent example of this
3. Vowels produced during babbling were used as substitutes for other vowel productions in words. The high front vowel [i] was a frequent substitute
4. Productions were context dependent

The Linguistic phase begins when

around 1 year of age

is [bɑ} for ball considered a word?

yes

is [dodo] for ball considered a word

no

Proto-word

vocalizations used consistently but without a recognizable adult model

First 50 words

encompasses the time from the first meaningful
utterance at approximately 1 year of age to the time when children
begin to put 2 words together at approximately 18-24 months
• Children usually produce approximately 50 words before putting 2 words together (2-word stage)

Holophrastic Period

the span of time during which children use one word to indicate a complete idea

Segmental Form Development

Limitations of syllable structures and segmental productions used
• Certain syllable types clearly predominate the first 50-word stage
• Certain children seem to favor specific types of syllables

Which consonants and vowels are present? in first 50 words

• The first consonants are labials, most commonly [p] & [m]
• Followed by [t] and later [k]
• Fricatives are present only after the respective homorganic stops have been acquired
• The first vowel is [ɑ] followed by [u] or [i]

salience factor

is defined as children's active selection in early
word productions of sounds that are important or remarkable
(salient) to children

Avoidance Factor

is defined as the avoidance of words that do not contain sounds within a specific child's inventory

Individual strategies

employed may include preferences for certain sounds, certain syllable structures, and or sound classes or sound features

Prosodic Feature Development

• As children move from the end of
the babbling period to first words, the previously noted intonational contours continue
• Pitch changes seem to develop prior to stress (changes in volume and timing)

during the Preschool stage

the largest growth within the phonological system takes place

Preschool stage- 5th birthday

expressive
vocabulary has expanded to approximately 2,200 words
-9,600 words
are in the child's receptive vocabulary

Segmental Form Development: Vowels

Children have all vowels inventory by the age of 3
• Children show the acquisition of [ɑ] [Ʊ]
[i] [ɪ] and [ʌ] at 18 months if the
criterion is set at 70%
-By 24 months, the only vowels that didn't reach 70% group accuracy
were [ɝ] and [ɚ]
• By the age of 3, all vowels were accounted for with virtually no
production errors
• Far more information is needed in the area of vowel acquisition

Phonological Regression

occurs as child attempts to mast other complexities of language
• Refers to accurate sound productions that are later replaced by
inaccurate one

Phonological Processes

This approximate age of suppression is helpful when determining
normal versus disordered phonological systems and can be used as a
guideline when targeting remediation goals

Reduplication is

a common process during the child's first 50-words stage

Final Consonant deletion suppresses when

disappears around age 3

Unstressed Syllable deletion suppresses when

disappears around age 4

cluster reduction suppresses when

still occurred in 5 year old children

Epenthesis

insertion of a sound segment into a word, thereby changing its syllable structure

Contrastive stress:

one syllable within a two-syllable utterance becomes prominent

What is Phonology?

-is the description of the systems and patterns of
phonemes that occur in a language
- Within this system, the smallest entity that can be distinguished by its
contrasting function within words is called the phoneme
-The phoneme is the central unit of phonology

How Does Phonology Work?

It is important to differentiate clearly between
speech sounds and phonemes

Speech sounds

Speech sounds (phones, allophones) are
physical forms that are the result of
physiological processes that have verifiable
acoustic properties

Phonemes

are defined in terms of their linguistic
function - their ability to establish meaningful units in a language

Speech Sound versus Phoneme: Clinical Application

Every utterance has 2 facets: an audible sequence of speech sounds
and their specific meaning conveyed through this sequence
• Both need to be realized for the utterance to be meaningful
• If only one aspect, either speech sound form or function, is realized, a
breakdown in the communicative process will occur

Audible Sequence of Speech Sounds

[heɪ dʒoƱ oƱvɚ hɪɚ]

Specific Meaning Conveyed

"Hey Joe, over here"
Language-specific function

Form

phonology, morphology, syntax (grammar)
-Depend on each other

Function

meaning
segment function depends on normal segment form

1. Phonological Rule
English

words may not start with two stop consonants

Distinctive Features Theories Definition

Attempts to determine the specific properties of a sound that serve
to signal meaning differences in a language
• The task is to determine which features are decisive for the
identification of the various phonemes within a given language

What are Distinctive Features?

A distinctive feature is any property that separates a subset of
elements from a group
• A sound component is said to be distinctive if it serves to distinguish
one phoneme from another
• Can not be broken down any further
Distinctive features are the smallest indivisible
sound properties that establish phonemes

How do Distinctive Features Work?

A binary system uses a plus (+) and a minus (-) system to signal the
presence of absence of certain features

How did Distinctive Feature Theories Develop?

Hypothesized that the ultimate constituent of
language was not the phoneme itself but its
smaller components, its distinctive features
• Jakobson stressed that these minimal
differences serve the function to distinguish
among words that are different in meaning

Wine / Mine
Difference is the nasality on the initial
sound

1952 Jakobson

used 12 acoustic features based on the sound
segments' spectrographic display (did not work well)

1956 Jakobson

published a new distinctive features system that included articulatory production features

Distinctive Feature Theories: Clinical
Application

Distinctive feature systems were
developed as a means of analyzing
phonemes and entire phoneme systems of
language
• Each phoneme of the system was assessed
to determine whether the distinctive features was present or absent

Distinctive Features Theories
- Therapeutic implications follow logically

If a child can be taught to discriminate between the presence and
absence of these differentiating distinctive features, the aberrant
sound productions should be easily remediated

Distinctive Features Theories
-Critics:

Some critical comments have focused on the fact that distinctive
feature theory and distinctive features are abstract concepts
• Not always applicable

Generative Phonology definition

is an outgrowth of distinctive feature theory
representing a substantial departure from previous phonological theories

Surface forms

surface-level representations are the actual end products of production
EX: transcribing a childs speech is examining the surface form

Generative Phonology- Underlying forms

exemplify the
person's language
competency as one
aspect of his or her
cognitive capacity
-also serve as points of orientation to describe regularities of speech reality as they relate
to other areas of language, notably morphology and syntax

Generative phonology assumes what?

2 levels of
sound representation, an abstract underlying
form called phonological representation and its
modified surface form, the phonetic
presentation
• Phonological rules govern how this
phonological representation (underlying
presentation or deep form) is transformed into
the actual pronunciation (surface form)

How does Generative Phonology Work?

Generative Distinctive Features:
• The first accounts of a generative distinctive
features theory were presented by Chomsky (1957)

-major class features
-cavity features
-manner of articulation
features
-source features
-prosodic features

Major Class Features- Sonorant

"open" vocal tract, vowels, glides, nasals, liquids

Major Class Features: Consonantal

sounds produced with a high degree of oral obstruction, stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, and nasals

Major Class Features: Vocalic

sounds produced with a low degree of oral obstruction: vowels and liquids

Glides

[w] [j]

Liquids

l, r

Affricates

tʃ, dʒ

Nasals

m, n, ŋ

stops

p, b, t, d, k, g

fricatives

f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h

Cavity Features:

Refers to the active and/or passive place of articulation

Cavity Features: Coronal

sounds produced with the blade of the tongue raised from its neutral position [t, d, s, z, n, l]

Cavity Features: Anterior

sounds produced in the frontal region of the oral cavity
with the alveolar ridge being the posterior border (labial, dental, and
alveolar consonants [m, n, b, p, f, v, d, t]

Coronal Sounds

Sounds made with the tip of the tongue
t,d,s,z,n,l

Anterior Sounds

m,n,b,p,f,v,d,t

Distributed

sounds with a relatively long oral- sagittal constriction, such as [ʃ] [s] [z]

Nasal

sounds produced with an open nasal passageway [m] [n] [ŋ]

Sagittal

from front to
back in the median plane
or in a plane parallel to the median.

Lateral

sounds produced with lowered lateral rim portions of the
tongue [l]

High

sounds produced with a high tongue position, vowels as well as
consonants [i] [u] [k] [ŋ]

Low

vowels produced with a low tongue positions [ɑ]. The only consonants qualifying for this category are [h] [ʔ]