part2

part2

Mate choice

Determined by a number of factors, including genetic qualities, overall health, and potential parenting skills of prospective mates

Altruism

Behavior that is disadvantageous to the individual, but confers benefits to other members of its social group. Appears to have no evolutionary benefit, but in actually improves inclusive fitnesses

Inclusive fitness

Overall fitness, considering both individual's own progeny as well as the offspring of its close relatives. Can increase it with altruism

Game Theory

Use of mathematical models to represent complex decision making in which the actions of other group members must be taken into account. Success of an individual in the "multiplayer game" depends not only on his or her own strategy but also on the strategies and decisions of the other "players". The most successful strategies result in greater fitness and will be favored by natural selection

Self-presentation

How an individual is perceived

Impression management

The process of consciously making behavioral choices in order to create a specific impression in the minds of others

Front stage self

Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs in front of an audience. The player know they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience

Back stage self

Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs when with other players, but no audience is present. Can include behavior that would be unacceptable when performed in front of the audience.

Groupthink

The phenomenon where a group's members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony. May cause individuals to self-censor ideas and opinions that go against group norms, or may be pressured by other group members to keep silent on these opinions.

Group polarization

Through the interactions and discussions of a group, the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members

Peer pressure

The social influence exerted by one's peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to their own behaviors

Is conformity necessary for a society to function smoothly?

Yes

Social facilitation

The tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched. Usually most pronounced for tasks at which the performer is highly practiced or skilled

Diffusion of responsibility

Responsible for bystander effect. People in a large, anonymous crowd are less likely to feel accountable for the outcome of a situation or to feel responsibility to take action

Bystander effect

Onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume someone else will help. Willingness to help is inversely proportional to \# of people present

Social loafing

Members a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder

De-individuation

Occurs when people lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd

Agents of socialization

Consist of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Include family, friends, neighbors, social institutions, consumption of mass media, and environments

Conformity

The tendency of individuals to CHANGE their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors to align with group norms. Necessary for the smooth functioning of social communities

Obedience

Describes behavioral changes made in response to a command by an authority figure

Deviance

Behavior that violates social expectations or fails to conform to social norms

Stigma

A negative social label that changes a person's social identity by classifying the labeled person as abnormal/tainted

Cultural assimilation

The process by which an individual or group becomes part of a new culture. Can occur through a variety of means (language acquisition, gaining knowledge of social norms)

Subculture

A culture that is shared by a smaller group of people who are also part of a larger culture but have specific cultural attributes that set them apart from the larger group

Multiculturalism

The practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture. Believes that the harmonious coexistence of separate cultures is a valuable goal, rather than encouraging all cultures to blend together through assimilation

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's group is of central importance. Includes the tendency to judge the practices by other groups by one's own cultural standards

Cultural relativism

The practice of trying to understand a culture on its own terms, and to judge a culture by its own standards rather than by one's own standards

In-group

A group with which an individual shares identity and toward which she feels loyalty

Out-group

A group with which an individual does not identify and toward which she may feel competition or hostility

Prejudice

The thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience. Power, prestige, and class can contribute to the effect that it has on the lives and opportunities of individuals as well as the structure of social institutions. Think: PREJUDGment about a group.

Stereotype

Attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals and overgeneralizing

Stereotype threat

The anxiety and resulting impaired performance that a person may experience when confronted with negative stereotype about a group to which he belongs or when he feels his performance may confirm a negative stereotype about his group. Can cause stereotypes to become self-fulfilling prophecies

Self-fulfilling prophecies

The stress and lowered expectations regarding a situation contribute to making beliefs into reality

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of others base don their membership in a specific social group. Its effects are mediated by factors such as power, prestige, and class. THINK: it is an ACTION

Individual discrimination

Occurs when one person behaves negatively toward another because of that person's membership in a specific social group or category

Institutional discrimination

Social institutions employ policies that differentiate people based on social grouping

Non associative learning

Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus

Habit

An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Dishabituation

Results when a repeated stimulus is removed

Sensitization

An increase in the responsiveness to a stimulus due to either repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus

Curve of Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning

Insight learning

Describes when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways.

Latent learning

Describes the manifestation of previously unseen behavior. Somethings s learned by not expressed as can observable behavior until it is required

Albert Bandura

Pioneer in the field of observational learning. Demonstrated the learning of aggressive behaviors in children after watching violent videos

Feral children

Individuals who were not raised with human contact or care

Sanctions

Rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

Formal norms

Written down rules that are precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them

Informal norms

Generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments

Mores

Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced

Folkways

Norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior

Amalgamation

Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

Affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions. It is an attempt to limit discrimination, but has been accused of perpetuating reverse discrimination

Reverse discrimination

Discrimination against the majority. Used to describe the negative consequences of affirmative action

Racism

Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another

Aggregate

People who exists in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

Primary groups

Play a more important role in an individual's life; usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term emotional ways. Serve EXPRESSIVE functions

Secondary groups

Larger, more impersonal groups that may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time. Serve INSTRUMENTAL functions

Reference group

A standard measure that people compare themselves to

Mere presence

People are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business

Two reasons why group polarization occurs

1) Informational influence

2) Normative influence

Informational influence

In group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint. Looking to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct

Normative influence

In group discussion, taking a stronger stance than you initially would have in order to better relate with and internalize the group's belief system. Even if you know what's right, do group's actions to avoid social rejection

Social comparison

Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others. Facilitates the development of a distinct self of self in terms of similarity/difference from other people

Mindguarding

Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group

Three ways that behavior may be motivated by social influence

1) Compliance

2) Identification

3) Internalization

Factors that influence conformity

1) Group size (the larger, the better)

2) Unanimity

3) Cohesion

4) Status

5) Accountability

6) No prior commitment

Master status

Status that dominates the others and determines the individual's general position in society

Ascribed status

A status that is assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts (ex. gender, race)

Achieved status

A status that is earned by a person due to the person's individual efforts

Role conflict

Happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person

Role strain

A single status results in conflicting expectations

Role exit

Disengaging from a role that that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another

Utilitarian organizations

Organization where members get paid for their efforts (ex. businesses)

Normative organizations

Organizations motivated based on morally relevant goals (ex. MADD)

Coercive organizations

Organizations where members do not have a choice in joining (ex. prisons)

Self-handicapping

Strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

Warning colors

Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious

Pheromones

Chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other

Mere exposure effect

People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli (aka familiarity breeds fondness)

Frustration-aggression principle

When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, the frustration can trigger anger, leading to aggression

Learning-performance distinction

Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things

Private conformity

Changing internal behaviors/opinions to align with the group

Public conformity

Outwardly changing behaviors to align with group, but maintaining inner core beliefs

Confirmation bias

Individuals tend to value new info that support a belief they already hold, while disregarding info that goes against preconceived notions. In groups, group members seek out information that support the majority view

Social anomie

Breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community- society doesn't have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Can be resolved by strengthening social norms and redeveloping group's set of shared norms.

Compliance

Situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. Aka going along with behavior without questioning why. Goes away when rewards/punishments removed

Identification

When people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual

Internalization

Idea/belief/behavior that has be been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity

Confederate

Actors that are told what to do during an experiment

Normative social influence

If we do something to gain respect/support of our peers, we're complying with social norms

Informational social influence

When we conform because we feel others are more knowledgable than us, because we think they know something we don't