AP Social Psych Learning Guide: Unit 8

Dispositional Attributions

A reflection of internal factors caused by something within a person.

(Ex: intelligence, personality, and attitude)

Situational Attributions

A reflection of external factors caused by something outside of a person.

(Ex: group pressure, others’ behaviors)

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency for people to attribute their own behavior (as the “actor”) to external situational factors, while attributing others behavior to internal factors.

Attribution Theory

A psychological framework that seems to explain how individuals make sense of their successes and failures by attributing them to various factors

(Does a person’s behavior reflect their situation or the person’s disposition?)

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s success to internal factors (like ability or effort) and failures to external factors (like luck or difficulty of the task).

Characteristics of Optimism

Views setbacks as temporary and isolated, blaming them on outside factors (controllable: “you can always be better”)

Characteristics of Pessimism

Views setbacks as personal, permanent, and pervasive (uncontrollable: “I’m stuck and lazy”)

Person Perception

The mental processes we use to make judgments about others based on available information to form impressions.

More Exposure Effect

The more ongoing, repeated vulnerability to a stimulus allows us to lean more towards the stimulus, enjoying it more.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to others who are better or superior in some way: looking up to someone.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to others who are perceived as inferior in some respect: looking down at someone (negative).

Relative Deprivation

The perception by an individual that the amount of a desired resource they have is less than some comparison standard.

Stereotype

The generalization and assumptions made about a group (heuristic) and applied to a group or individual: can be positive or negative (cognitive shortcut).

Prejudice

A preconceived negative opinion or attitude, including judgments made about a group based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

The unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group and its members.

Unconscious Bias

Your background, personal experiences, societal stereotypes, and cultural context can have an impact on associations we hold, outside our conscious awareness and control.

Implicit Attitude

Evaluations of people or things that happen without conscious awareness: favorable or unfavorable are influenced by a person’s experiences.

Just-World Phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

In Group Bias

The tendency to favor our own group—”us”—people with whom we share a common identity.

Cognitive Dissonance

The theory that we reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognition’s) are inconsistent.

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality.

The Central Route to Persuasion

Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

The Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speakers attractiveness.

Foot-in-the-Door

The tendency for people who have already agreed to a small request, to comply later on with a larger request.

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Group Polarization

The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

Social Traps

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, with the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Social Reciprocity Norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them.

Social Responsibility Norm

An expectation that people will help those who need help.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for any given bystanders to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Attribution Theory

A psychological framework that seems to help make sense of why people do the things they do after/while having thought about others.

Explanatory Style

Refers to how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event.

Attribution Bias

The tendency to inaccurately attribute the causes of someone’s behavior to their character while underestimating situational factors.

The Locus of Control

Refers to an individual’s belief about the extent to which their actions can influence the events in their lives.

Person Perception

The processes by which people think about, appraise, and evaluate other people. An important aspect of person perception is the attribution of motives for action.

Social Comparison Theory

When people evaluate their own abilities, values, and opinions by comparing them to others.

Ethnocentrism

Assuming the superiority of one’s ethnic group

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to hold onto a belief even when presented with evidence that contradicts it.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort required to process and retain information.

Multiculturalism

The quality or condition of a society in which different ethnic groups have equal status and access to power but each maintains its own identity, characteristics, and morals.

False Consensus Effect

To see their own behavioral choices and judgments as relatively common and appropriate to existing circumstances.

Social Influence Theory

People are more likely to do whatever they see as being the norm.

Persuasion

Refers to the techniques applied to convenience the self or others of particular ideas, actions, or beliefs.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory in psychology that explains how people process persuasive messages and form attitudes.

Door-in-the-Face

Following up an extravagant request with a reasonable one such as that the (guilty) subject complies.

Halo Effect

Attractive people and products are seen in a more reputable way.

Normative Social Influence

The need to be liked/accepted by the group, therefore conforming.

Information Social Influence

The need to know what to do out of fear of disapproval, therefore conforming.

Prosocial Behavior

Refers to voluntary actions intended to benefit others, including acts of kindness, sharing, and helping without expecting a reward.

Situational Variables

Environmental factors that may impact people’s behaviors like temperature, noise, etc.

Attentional Variables

Factors that affect how well a person can focus their attention, including distractions, cognitive load, and their current emotional state.

Availability Heuristic

Our tendency to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to perceived past events as more predictable than they actually were.

Diffusion of Responsibility

A sociopsychological phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when other bystanders or witnesses are present.