AP Psych Unit 7 | AP Exam Review

Memory

The persistance of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system — For example, by extracting meaning

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel Processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; The brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

• Contrasts w/ the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers & of conscious problem solving

Sensory Memory

The immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

• Includes knowledge, skills, and experience

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (AKA declarative memory)

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information (ie. space, time, and frequency) and of well-learned information (ie. word meanings)

Implicit Memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection (AKA non-declarative memory)

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; A photogenic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds

ChunkingMn

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; Often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

• Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

Shallow Processing

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep Processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; Tends to yield the best retention

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; Helps processing explicit memories for storage

Flashbulb Memory

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

• Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Serial Position Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (a recovery effect) and first items (a primary effect) in a list

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Proactive Interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Misinformation Effect

Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

Source Amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (AKA source misattribution)

Deja Vu

The eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and communicating

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Convergent Thinking

Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent Thinking

Expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure than guarantees solving a particular problem

• Contrasts with the usually speedier — But also more error-prone use of heuristics

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; Usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; Contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Mental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Intuition

An effortless immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; If instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct — To overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

The way an issue is posed; How an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

Language

Our spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phoneme

In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphene

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; May be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

Grammar

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

• In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

• Syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Babbling Stage

Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

One-Word Stage

The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Two-Word Stage

Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram — “Go car” — Using mostly nouns and verbs

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s Area

Controls language expression — An area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left-hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke’s Area

Controls language perception — A brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; Usually in the left temporal lobe

Linguistic Determinism

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think