Cumulative Exam #1-AP Psych

Information Processing Model

Memory works like a computer: information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Storage

Keeping information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information.

Automatic Processing

Encoding information unconsciously (e.g., time, space, word meanings).

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and effort (e.g., studying vocab).

Explicit memory

Conscious memories (facts, experiences).

Implicit memory

Unconscious memories (skills, habits).

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences

Semantic memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge.

Shallow processing

Focuses on appearance (least durable).

Structural encoding

Encoding based on physical structure (capital letters)

Intermediate processing

Focuses on sound.

Phonemic encoding

Encoding based on sound.

Deep processing

Focuses on meaning (most durable).

semantic encoding

encoding based on meaning

sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory input.

iconic memory

Visual sensory memory (~0.5 sec).

echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory (3–4 sec).

STM

Holds limited info briefly (7±2 items).

LTM

Relatively permanent, unlimited storage

working memory

Active processing of information.

central executive

Directs attention and coordinates subsystems.

phonological loop

Processes verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Processes visual and spatial information.

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information from memory systems

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do things in the future

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids using imagery or organization.

Method of Loci

Associates info with locations.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

spacing effect

Distributed practice improves retention.

Distributed Practice

Studying over time.

Massed Practice

Cramming

Serial Position Effect

Remembering first and last items best.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of first items

Recency Effect

Better recall of last items.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating info to keep it in STM

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new info to existing knowledge.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life events.

HSAM

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of past memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Alzheimer’s Disease

Progressive memory loss and cognitive decline

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember early childhood.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help access memories.

Context-Dependent Memory

Recall improves in same environment.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall improves in same physical state

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall matches current mood.

Retrieval Practice

Actively recalling information.

Testing Effect

Testing improves long-term retention

Metacognition

thinking about one’s own thinking

Recall

Retrieving info without cues.

Recognition

Identifying correct info

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid memory of emotional events.

Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus)

Memory loss occurs rapidly without rehearsal

Encoding Failure

Information never stored properly.

Proactive Interference

Old info disrupts new info.

Retroactive Interference

New info disrupts old info

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Feeling that retrieval is imminent but can’t quite recall

Repression

Blocking traumatic memories

Misinformation Effect

Memory altered by misleading info.

Source Amnesia

Forgetting where info came from.

Déjà Vu

Feeling of having experienced something before.

Constructive Memory

Memories are rebuilt, not replayed.

Memory Consolidation

Stabilizing memories in LTM.

Imagination Inflation

Imagining events increases belief they occurred.

Concepts

Mental categories.

Prototypes

Best example of a concept

Schemas

Mental frameworks for understanding.

Assimilation

Fitting info into existing schemas

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new info

Algorithms

Step-by-step problem-solving methods

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging based on similarity.

Availability Heuristic

Judging based on ease of recall.

Kahneman & Tversky

Researchers who identified heuristics and biases.

Mental Set

Sticking to familiar strategies.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for objects.

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations

Framing

How presentation influences decisions

Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that chance events influence each other

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing due to already investing in it

Executive Functions

Planning, organizing, decision-making skills

Creativity

Ability to produce novel ideas.

Convergent Thinking

Finding one correct solution

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple solutions

g Theory of General Intelligence (Spearman)

Intelligence is a single general ability (g) that influences performance in all areas.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory

Intelligence is hierarchical with general intelligence (g) at the top and specific abilities below

Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

Intelligence consists of multiple independent abilities (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical)

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to reason and solve new problems; peaks in early adulthood

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and skills; increases with age.

IQ (Binet)

Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test to identify students needing academic support

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

Adaptation of Binet’s test; introduced the modern IQ score.

WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)

Widely used adult intelligence test measuring verbal and performance abilities.

Standardization

Administering a test under uniform conditions.

Norming

Establishing test norms by testing a representative sample

Percentile Rank

Indicates percentage of people who scored at or below a given score.

Reliability

Consistency of a test’s results

Test-Retest Reliability

Stability of scores over time

Split-Half Reliability

Consistency between two halves of the same test.