Health Psychology

What are the leading causes of preventable death in the U.S?

Tobacco use

Poor diet and physical inactivity (obesity-related conditions)

Alcohol misuse

Accidents (motor vehicle injuries)

Infectious diseases (due to unprotected sex, etc.)

What is the biopsychosocial model, and how does it differ from the biomedical model?

Biomedical Model: Focuses only on biological causes of illness (genes, viruses, etc.).

Biopsychosocial Model: Recognizes that biological, psychological, and social factors all interact to influence health and illness. → Example: Stress (psychological) can weaken the immune system (biological) and be worsened by the lack of social support

What type of research design is best for answering health psychology questions and why?

All research methods have their pros and cons

Experimental

What does it mean that correlation does not imply causation? Why doesn't it?

Correlation looks into the relationship between two things. Experiments determine causation

In an experiment, there are 3 different factors

Covariance (Association): The cause and effect must vary together. An association (or correlation) must be observed between the two variables

Temporal Precedence (Time Order): The cause must occur before the effect

Elimination of Alternative Explanations: Random assignment is the main way to ensure there are no other plausible factors (like confounding variables) that could explain the observed relationship.

A Correlational study can have covariance and temporal precedence, but it does not eliminate any other alternative explanations.

How did a shift in the disease burden contribute to the emergence of health psychology?

In the past: Infectious diseases were main killers.

Now: Chronic diseases (heart disease, diabetes) dominate. → Led to Health Psychology focusing on lifestyle, prevention, and behavior change.

What are the components of the Health Belief Model, and what does this model do?

Self-efficacy

Benefits

Barriers

Severity

Susceptibility

Cues to action/ Prompt

(Your belief in whether change is possible)

The model predicts whether people will engage in health behaviors (e.g., getting a flu shot)

How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning? (And how does operant conditioning show up in real life? For example, in efforts to reduce sugar consumption, as in Donnelly and colleagues' 2021 study of sugary drinks?

Classical: Learning through association (e.g., associating a cue with nausea).

Operant: Learning through consequences (reward/punishment). →

In Donnelly et al. (2021), reducing sugary drinks used operant conditioning (rewards/punishments to change behavior).

Classical Conditioning:

Learning through associations

Operant Conditioning:

Learning through consequences (reward and punishment)

What are the components of the Theory of Planned Behavior?

Attitudes toward the behavior

Subjective norms (social pressure)

Perceived behavioral control

These shape behavioral intentions, which lead to actual behavior.

What is the purpose of the Theory of Planned Behavior?

Attitudes towards behavior, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control shape behavior intentions which lead to actual behavior.

What are the components of the Social Ecological Model, and what are the main ideas included in this model?

Levels of influence:

1. Individual

2. Interpersonal

3. Organizational

4. Community

5. Public policy

Behavior is shaped by multiple environmental and social layers.

What is the difference between primary and secondary prevention?

Primary: Prevent disease before it occurs (e.g., vaccination, exercise).

Secondary: Detect and treat early (e.g., screenings).

How does research support (or refute) the use of complementary and alternative medicine?

Evidence is mixed: some (like meditation, acupuncture) show benefits; others lack scientific support.

CAM (the use of non-traditional or holistic therapies, alongside or instead of conventional treatments, to manage mental health conditions)may help with pain and stress management but shouldn't replace conventional care.

What is the main idea of the Common-Sense Model of Self-Regulation?

People form beliefs about their illness (cause, duration, consequences, controllability) → which guide coping and behavior. → Example: Believing a cold is serious may make someone rest more.

What are problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies, and what are the pros and cons of those two types of coping?

Problem-Focused: Directly address the problem (e.g., make a plan).

Emotion-Focused: Manage feelings (e.g., journaling, meditation). → Both can help; effectiveness depends on situation.

What were the main ideas of the Health Headlines activity we did in class?

Emphasized critical thinking about how health research is reported in media.

Don't believe every headline—look for study quality and sample size.

What is eustress? When might we experience it?

Positive stress that motivates and enhances performance. → Example: excitement before an exam or competition.

What is cortisol? When does our body release more of it? How is cortisol related to the sympathetic and/or parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system?

Cortisol = Stress hormone from the adrenal glands.

Increases with activation of the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight).

Chronic high cortisol → health issues (immune suppression, weight gain).

Sympathetic system: Activates cortisol release to help manage stress.

Parasympathetic system: Reduces cortisol levels once the stress is over.

What is the Type A behavior pattern? What does research show about how Type A is related to health outcomes?

Traits: competitiveness, impatience, and hostility.

Linked to a higher risk of heart disease, especially the hostility component.

What are the stages of the transtheoretical Model?

Precontemplation

Contemplation

Preparation

Action

Maintenance

Optional: Relapse

What are some pros and cons of the transtheoretical model?

Pros: Recognizes gradual change.

Cons: People don't always move linearly through stages.

What is the Fogg Behavior model?

Behavior is a combination of Motivation , Ability, and Cues to action / Prompts

All three must be present for change to occur.

What is success momentum? What drives this phenomenon?

Small wins build confidence

increases likelihood of continuing behavior change.

What were the goals of the Swarm of Behavior activity we did in class?

Increase self-awareness of your options for behavior change.

Prioritize behaviors that are both meaningful and doable.

Build confidence by choosing small, achievable steps instead of overwhelming goals.

Set yourself up for success in making lasting health or lifestyle changes.

What is psychological hardiness, and how can we develop it?

The traits of psychological hardiness is Commitment, Control, and Challenge. It helps people stay resilient under stress.

It is Developed by reframing stress and focusing on growth (Growth mindset)

How does physical activity benefit health? What types of activities "count" as physical activity? How much physical activity do you need to do to experience health benefits?

Benefits: reduces chronic disease risk, improves mood, strengthens heart and immune system.

"Counts": walking, dancing, cleaning, gardening.

Goal: 150 min moderate or 75 min vigorous activity per week.

What is mindfulness? What are some benefits of mindfulness?

Mindfulness is having Present-moment awareness without judgment.

Benefits: reduces stress, improves emotion regulation, enhances focus and immune health.

What are some upsides of social relationships for health?

Upsides: lower stress, better immune function, longer lifespan.

What are some downsides of social isolation/loneliness?

Downsides of isolation: higher risk of depression, cardiovascular disease, early death.

What were some of the behavior change strategies we discussed in class, taken from Katy Milkman's book HOW TO CHANGE

Gamification, Avoid forgetting, Constrain yourself

Temptation bundling, Fresh start effect, Commitment devices

Temptation bundling: pair fun activity with a goal behavior.

Fresh start effect: use new beginnings (e.g., birthdays, new semesters).

Commitment devices: create accountability.

Defaults and reminders: make good choices easier

What were some takeaways from the Guess the Country activity we did in class (related to stress around the world?

Showed stress levels vary by culture.

Wealth ≠ happiness; social support and work-life balance are key factors.

What are some problems with patient/provider communication? How can these be addressed?

Jargon, lack of empathy, not listening, time pressure.

Solutions: patient-centered communication, clear explanations, cultural competence.

What did the graphs look like in our Guess the Graphs game? What were the implications of the relationship?

Interpreting data: e.g., stress vs. illness, exercise vs. mental health. →

Showed how lifestyle factors influence health outcomes.

What are stress mindsets? Why do they matter?

Positive stress mindset: seeing stress as enhancing performance.

Negative mindset: seeing stress as harmful.

They matter because Mindset influences physiological and psychological responses.

What was the point of the in-class activity that involved 5 quiz questions, a video, and 5 more quiz questions?

To show that our perception of stress (positive or negative) will influence how we respond

What is a growth mindset? What are the upside? How do I know if I have one?

Belief that abilities can be developed with effort.

Upsides: resilience, motivation, persistence.

You know you have a growth mindset If you believe you can improve → more likely to succeed.

Why did we play the wrong Answers Only Game in class?

Laughter decreases cortisol levels

What does Pre-Cope Stand for?

P - People

R- Rasin mindfulness

E - Exercise

C - Communication

O - Organization

P - Perspective shift

What is the purpose of pain?

Warns us of injury, protects from further harm, motivates behavior change (e.g., rest, treatment).

What are some strategies that can be used to treat/reduce pain?

Vibration and cold

Distraction

Medications (analgesics)

Physical therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Relaxation techniques, mindfulness, biofeedback, acupuncture.

What is dietary fiber? Why do we need it?

Plant-based carbohydrate that isn't digested.

Benefits: aids digestion, lowers cholesterol, controls blood sugar, increases satiety.

What is cirrhosis? What causes it?

Chronic liver damage → scarring (fibrosis).

Causes: alcohol abuse, hepatitis, fatty liver disease

What is sedentary behavior? What effects can it have on our health?

Prolonged sitting/inactivity.

Risks: obesity, heart disease, diabetes, poor mental health. → Even light movement helps reduce harm.

What is anerexia nervosia? What is bulimia nervosa? How are these similar and different?

Anorexia Nervosa: restriction of food, fear of weight gain, distorted body image.

Bulimia Nervosa: binge eating followed by purging. → Similar: preoccupation with weight/body image.

Different: anorexia = restriction; bulimia = binge-purge cycles.

Annemika works best when her professor gives weekly assignments to complete. She doesn't like classes that are based just on tests and paper. These weekly homework tasks keep her alert, focused, and occupied, even though she sometimes feels that they are difficult to complete. Annemeka works best when she is experiencing:

- Cataclysmic events

- Eustress

- A resistance reaction

- Hassles

Eustress.

What is Eustress?

Eustress is a type of positive stress that motivates a person and enhances their performance. Annemieka was alert and engaged, but was challenged

Which of these is a key limitation of the Transtheoretical Model?

It is not very helpful for tailoring interventions

It can classify the same person as being in different stages of change for different aspects of the same behavior

It is not very useful for gauging intervention success

All of the above.

It can classify the same person as being in different stages.

- A person may be in a different stage of change for different parts of the same behavior, and this makes it less precise for planning interventions.

Although not typically thought of as an alternative treatment technique, the use of ________for the treatment of various types of pain (including musculoskeletal pain) is quite effective

Homeopathy

Acupressure

Acupuncture

Exercise

Exercise - Exercise is beneficial for pain management

What were some takeaways from the country activity we did in class (related to stress around the world)?

As the level of national economic development increases, the stress level by country decreases

The U.S. is the most stressed country in the world

There is enormous variability in levels of reported stress around the world

All of these were true.

There is considerable variability in the levels of reported stress worldwide.

- Stress levels vary widely across countries, and there is a lot of variability in reported stress worldwide.

Which of the following is true about the pain-related TED talks we watched?

In Amy Baxter's talk, she identified vibration and cold as being an alternative to opioids for pain treatment

In Amy Baxter's talk, she noted that it is important to understand that we can be pain-free, so that we do not settle for just becoming "more comfortable."

In Trung Ngo's talk, he emphasizes that pain is about what is going on inside the individual (thoughts, feelings, mindset). External things, like social connections, are not relevant to our pain

In Trung Ngo's talk, he makes it clear that for people to be resilient, they need to be self-reliant and not depend on other people.

All of these are true.

In Amy Baxter's talk, she identified vibration and cold as being an alternative to opioids for pain treatment.

- In her TED Talk, Amy Baxter talks about how cold and vibration can help manage pain as well as distraction.

What is the biopsychosocial model, and how does it differ from the biomedical model?

- Biopsychosocial: Biology, psychology, and social aspects all influence behavior.

- Biomedical: A framework for understanding and treating disease that emphasizes biological factors. --> Focuses on the biology of health (like infection, genetic mutation, and psychological dysfunctions)

What does it mean that correlation does not imply causation? Why dosent it?

Correlation looks into the relationship between two things. Experiments determine causation.

Third variable problem (There could be a different explanation for why the behavior is occurring.

What are the three factors needed to know that causation occurred?

1. Covariance (Association): The cause and effect must vary together. An association (or correlation) must be observed between the two variables.

2. Temporal Precidence (Time Order): The cause must occur before the effect.

3. Elimination of Alternative explanations/ The third variable Problem: Random assignment is the best way to ensure there are no other plausible factors (like confounding variables) that could explain the observed relationship.

What are the components of the Health Belief Model, and what does this model do?

- Self-efficacy, Benefits, Barriers, Severity, Susceptibility, Cues to action/ Prompt.

- The health belief model posits that health behaviors are influenced by individuals' beliefs about health risk and the benefits of action.

What are the characteristics of observational learning, Classical conditioning, and operant conditioning?

- Observational learning --> You learn from the environment

- Classical conditioning --> You learn through associations

- Operant conditioning --> You learn through rewards and punishment

What are the key terms related to the two types of conditioning?

Classical Conditioning:

- Unconditioned and conditioned stimulus

- Unconditioned and conditioned response

Operant conditioning:

- Positive and negative Reinforcement

- Positive and negative Punishment

What is the difference between primary and secondary prevention?

- Primary prevention stops disease before it starts (vaccines, healthy diets, education)

- Secondary prevention catches disease early to slow or halt its progression (screenings like mammography, blood pressure checks) before symptoms are obvious.

What are the components of the Theory of Planned Behavior?

Attitude - How people think about a certain topic

Good or bad, positive or negative, worthwhile or not

Subjective norm → Consideration of other people

Descriptive → What people do/ What other people's actions are

Injunctive → What people approve of / What other people's actions are

Perceived Control

These 3 lead to Intention and behavior.

What is the purpose of the theory of planned behavior?

To explain and predict deliberate human behavior by identifying key psychological factors that shape intention, which lead to action.

What is Eustress? When might we experience it?

Good/positive stress (Motivates, improves performance, and builds resilience.)

Stress for finals, Stress for job applications/goals.

How is Eustress different from stress?

- Eustress is positive/ good stress that motivates, improves performance, and builds resilience.

- Stress is when demand exceeds resources.

What is cortisol? When does our body release more of it? How is cortisol related to the sympathetic and/or parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system?

The steroid hormone "Stress hormone" is produced in the adrenal gland. → Our body releases more of it in stressful situations.

Sympathetic Nervous System → fight or flight, stressful situation.

Parasympathetic Nervous System → acts as the brakes that calm the body down after a threat has passed.

What are problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies?

- Problem-focused coping strategies → Fix the problem. Best for changeable situations

- Emotion -Emotion-focused coping strategies → make you feel better. Best for situations that can not be changed (Greif)

What are the pros of cons of problem-focused coping strategies?

Pros:

- Best for changing situations

Cons:

- Can be maladaptive when the problem is not solvable/ does not have a solution.

- Can be maladaptive if you are doing something to avoid processing feelings.

What are the pros and cons of emotion-focused coping strategies?

Pros: Best for situations that cannot be changed (Grief)

Cons:

- Can be maladaptive when the problem is not solvable/ does not have a solution.

- Can be maladaptive if you are doing something to avoid processing feelings.

How are optimism and pessimism related to health behaviors and health outcomes?

Optimists report significantly higher happiness than pessimists.

Optimism predicts future well-being, even when controlling for personality traits at baseline happiness.

Optimism → Associated with better health outcomes, because optimistic individuals are more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors and listen to medical advice.

Pessimism → Can lead to negative health behaviors and poor health outcomes because individuals may feel helpless and disengaged.

What health conditions affect the most Americans in a given year?

chronic disease / Cardiovascular disease.

What are "Sick role" behaviors, and how do they relate to the experience of pain?

Social expected action and attitudes of someone who is ill.

Like seeking medical help.

Go to/adhere to medical treatment → Influences their pain.

Provide a socially acceptable way to manage pain → Chronic disease (Women are more likely to be diagnosed) Biological factors → Estrogen and progesterone influence pain sensitivity / Psychosocial factors → gender norms in reporting)

People with a chronic health condition are more likely to have depression, stress, and anxiety disorders.

How does physical activity benefit health? What types of activities "count" as physical activity? How much physical activity is recommended? How much physical activity do you need to do to experience health benefits?

Benefits: Reduces chronic disease risk, improves mood, strengthens the heart and immune system

Activity that counts as physical activity: Nothing that increases heart rate above resting level. → Walking, dancing, cleaning, gardening

Recommended amount of physical activity: 150 min. - 300 min. Moderate or 75 - 150. min vigorous activity per week. Strength training at least 2 days a week.

What is the relationship between violence and mental illness?

Low predictor of violence → correlation =/= causation

Social factors and past behavior are bigger predictors

What are the leading causes of preventable death in the U.S.? Are these the same for all age groups? How have these changed in the past 100 years?

younger adults → unintentional injury (gun violence)

Older adults

Smoking

Heart disease

Cancer

Respiratory issues

Lack of physical activity

Changed from infectious diseases to chronic diseases

Where in the world is gun violence common?

Latin America and the US

Where in the world is gun violence uncommon?

Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and the UK

How many people in the U.S. are affected by gun violence?

Tens of thousands annually; over 50% of adults report exposure in their lifetime.

How is socioeconomic status related to gun violence?

Higher rates of gun violence are linked to lower socioeconomic status.

What are the risks associated with smoking compared to vaping?

Smoking is more dangerous than vaping, with higher health risks.

What hormone is primarily responsible for sexual desire in women?

Estrogen

What hormone is primarily responsible for sexual desire in men?

Testosterone

What is HIV?

A virus that attacks the body's immune system and can lead to AIDS.

How common is HIV?

Over 1.2 million people in the US are impacted; globally 40.8 million.

How is HIV transmitted?

Orally, through blood and breastmilk, and through sex.

What mental health challenges are commonly experienced by people living with HIV?

Depression, anxiety, substance use disorder, and PTSD.

What are the psychological consequences of surgery for transgender individuals?

Reduced psychological distress, anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation.

What attributional triad is linked with depressive symptoms?

Global vs. specific, internal vs. external, stable vs. temporary.

What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

A psychological theory proposing human motivation moves through 5 levels: physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, self-actualization.

What are the Big 5 dimensions of personality?

Openness, Extroversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

What factors contribute to physical inactivity in the U.S.?

Car-dependent lifestyles.

What are some risk factors for cardiovascular disease?

Hypertension, high cholesterol, high blood sugar, and cardiac inflammation.

What are the signs of a heart attack?

Chest pain, nausea, shortness of breath, fatigue.

What are the signs of a stroke?

F.A.S.T: Face drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulty, Time to call 911.

What are common barriers to adherence to medical treatment?

Overwhelmed by options, jargon, false consensus effect, spotlight effect, denominator neglect.

Where does cancer rank among causes of death in the U.S.?

2nd leading cause of death.

Are cancer death rates increasing or decreasing in the U.S.?

Decreasing due to better prevention, early detection, and improved treatment.

What are the psychological implications of reconstructive surgery after a mastectomy?

Improved body image, increased self-esteem, emotional adjustment difficulties.

What is the leading cause of death in the U.S.?

Heart disease

What is the trend in cancer death rates in the U.S.?

Cancer death rates are going down.

What factors contribute to the decrease in cancer death rates?

Better prevention, early detection, and improved treatment.

What are the psychological implications of undergoing reconstructive surgery following a mastectomy?

Improved body image, restored sense of femininity, increased self-esteem, sense of control, emotional adjustment difficulties, anxiety or depression, unrealistic expectations, body image dissatisfaction, sexual self-image, partner adjustment.

What are the stages of dying proposed by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross?

Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance.