Lipski. Africans in Cuba, pp. 103-111

What is the estimated number of Africans taken to Cuba by 1853 according to Humboldt?

Approximately 644,000 Africans.

What was the total number of African slaves estimated to have landed in Cuba according to Eltis et al.?

684,000 embarked and 564,000 landed.

How many African slaves were brought to Cuba by 1865 according to Aimes?

Around 528,000 Africans.

What was the total number of African slaves taken to Cuba by 1861?

849,000 slaves.

What percentage of all slaves taken to Cuba arrived during the first half of the nineteenth century?

Nearly 86 percent.

What is the estimated total number of African bozales taken to Cuba during the entire slave trade according to P´erez de la Riva?

1,310,000 African bozales.

What was the estimated number of African-born blacks in Cuba in 1873?

Approximately 136,000.

What was the estimated number of native Africans in Cuba by 1907?

Fewer than 8,000.

Which geographical regions contributed the majority of African slaves to Cuba in the nineteenth century?

Bight of Benin, Mozambique, Northern Congo, Angola/Congo, Bight of Biafra, and Sierra Leone.

What percentage of slaves imported to Cuba from 1817-43 came from the Bight of Benin?

31.1%.

What percentage of slaves imported to Cuba from 1817-43 came from Mozambique?

29.5%.

What ethnic group represented 34.52% of bozales on Cuban sugar estates during 1850-60?

Lucumí.

What term was used in Cuba for Yoruba-speaking Africans?

Lucumí.

What is the origin of the term 'Arara' in relation to African slaves in Cuba?

Derived from the historical area of Ardra in Dahomey (modern Benin).

What does the term 'Carabalí' refer to in the context of African slaves in Cuba?

It refers to a heterogeneous mix of ethnic groups from southeastern Nigeria.

What is the significance of the term 'Mandinga' in Afro-Hispanic literature?

It refers to a group speaking Mandinkan languages, but has been used loosely for any black from northwestern Africa.

What cultural practices did Carabalí culture give rise to in Cuba?

Religious and social ceremonies known as abakuá and añanguismo.

What was the estimated percentage of slaves from the Bight of Biafra during 1821-25?

45.4%.

What was the estimated percentage of slaves from Angola during 1841-43?

22.0%.

What does the term 'bozal' refer to in the context of African slaves in Cuba?

It refers to African-born slaves, particularly those who had just arrived from Africa.

What was the estimated number of African slaves imported to Cuba between 1762 and 1780?

Approximately 20,000.

What was the total number of African slaves taken to Cuba by 1820?

Around 390,000.

How did the number of bozales in Cuba change by the end of the nineteenth century?

The number fell dramatically from 136,000 in 1873 to 13,000 by the end of the century.

What was the linguistic impact of the African slave trade on Cuban Spanish?

The presence of bozal language influenced the development of bozal Spanish.

What language did the congos in Cuba primarily speak?

Kikongo and related languages from the northern Congo region.

What are the religious and cultural practices of the congos known as?

Regla de congo, palo monte, or mayombe.

Who documented the practices of the congos in Cuba?

Cabrera (1979) and former slave Esteban Montejo.

Which African language survived in Cuba beyond the last bozal generation?

Kikongo.

What does the term 'Mina' refer to in the context of Cuban history?

Members of the Akan group (Asante, Fanti, Twi) from the former Gold Coast (modern Ghana).

What percentage of workers on Cuban sugar estates were gangá slaves during 1850-1860?

Approximately 11.5 percent.

What was the significance of Curaçao in the Cuban labor trade?

It supplied both authorized and clandestine slave traffic to Cuba.

What is Papiamento and its relevance to Cuba?

A creole language documented in Cuba, introduced through the labor trade from Curaçao.

How did the Dutch influence the slave trade to Cuba?

They maintained a franchised slave market on Curaçao, supplying slaves to Spanish colonies.

What was the impact of anti-slavery movements in Europe on the Cuban labor market?

They led to a burgeoning contraband labor trade due to insufficient African slave supply.

What was the role of Haitian workers in the Cuban labor force?

They emigrated voluntarily and were guaranteed a steady supply through government accords.

What was the largest source of non-black plantation laborers in Cuba in the 19th century?

Chinese laborers, known as culíes.

How many Chinese laborers were received in Cuba during the second half of the 19th century?

At least 150,000.

What linguistic similarities existed between Chinese laborers and African bozales in Cuba?

Both groups acquired Spanish in similar ways and were influenced by the speech of other workers.

What was the significance of the Portuguese colony of Macao for Chinese workers in Cuba?

It was where many were recruited, and a Portuguese-based pidgin and creole were spoken.

What does the term 'gangá' signify in the context of Afro-Cuban identity?

It was synonymous with black Africans but did not refer to a specific ethnic group or unique cultural practices.

What was the relationship between the term 'gangá' and other ethnolinguistic designations in Cuba?

It was used alongside terms like Mandinga, Congo, and Lucumí, but lacked a direct ethnic association.

What was the cultural impact of the influx of Jamaican laborers in Cuba?

They contributed to the labor force but were never as numerous as in the Dominican Republic.

What was the general attitude of Cubans towards the speech of Africans?

Cubans had negative attitudes, which affected their perception of African languages and pidgins.

What historical context led to the emergence of creole languages in Cuba?

The mixing of various African languages and European influences due to the slave trade and labor migration.

What is Macao creole Portuguese?

A creole language that shares patterns with Afro-European creoles, influencing varieties in Cuba and the Caribbean.

Which Afro-European creoles are mentioned as related to Macao creole Portuguese?

Cape Verdean, Papiamento, Palenquero, Sâo Tomense, Annobonese, Haitian Creole, and Jamaican Creole.

What is bozal Spanish?

A Spanish dialect formed in the Caribbean, influenced by African and creole languages.

How might Chinese workers have influenced bozal Spanish in Cuba?

They may have brought fragments of Macao creole Portuguese, contributing to the linguistic mix.

What stereotype developed regarding the habla de chino in Cuba?

It portrayed Chinese speakers as comical but not unfavorable, highlighting their pidginized Spanish.

What are some linguistic features of the habla de chino?

Change of /r/ to [l] in prevocalic positions, loss of word-final /s/, and in situ questions.

What did Pichardo note about the pronunciation of Chinese speakers in Cuba?

They pronounced Spanish words clearly but with a criollo accent, often changing rr and sometimes r and d to l.

What items did Fernando Ortiz register as Pidgin English elements in Cuba?

Terms like tifi-tifi (to steal), chapi-chapi (to chop weeds), and luku-luku (look, see).

What is the significance of Pidgin English in the context of Cuban plantations?

It was claimed to be the true lingua franca used by slaves while acquiring Spanish.

What are the two known routes of arrival of Pidgin English in nineteenth-century Cuba?

Coastal Nigeria and the West African island of Fernando Poo.

What role did French Creole speakers play in Cuba during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

They formed a significant portion of the population in eastern Cuba, including Santiago.

What are tumba francesa societies?

Musical societies organized by French Creole speakers in Cuba, mixing Spanish and Haitian Creole.

What linguistic traits are noted in Haitian Spanish contact situations?

Use of double negation and cliticized phrase-final elements, similar to Haitian Creole.

How do modern Cuban tumba francesa songs exemplify linguistic mixing?

They combine Spanish and Haitian Creole, reflecting similar traits to Dominican Republic texts.

What is the relationship between Spanish no and Haitian non?

Spanish no is cognate with Haitian non, facilitating the formation of double negation in contact situations.

What is a characteristic feature of Haitian Creole noted in the text?

The use of double negation, combining pre-verbal pa with phrase-final -non.

What does the term 'pidginized Spanish' refer to?

Spanish that has been simplified and altered due to influence from other languages, particularly in contact situations.

What does the term 'creoloid constructions' refer to?

Linguistic features that resemble those found in creole languages, often arising in contact situations.

What is the significance of the linguistic mix in Afro-Cuban Spanish?

It highlights the complex interactions between different linguistic and cultural groups in Cuba.

What does the term 'Afro-Lusitanian pidgin' imply?

A pidgin language formed from Portuguese and African languages, influencing the development of bozal Spanish.

How does the text describe the number of Chinese workers in Cuba compared to Africans?

The number of Chinese workers was small compared to the African population.

What does the phrase 'habla de chino' refer to?

The pidginized Spanish spoken by Chinese workers in Cuba.

What is the role of literary stereotypes in the portrayal of Chinese speakers in Cuba?

They often depicted Chinese speakers in a comical light, reflecting societal attitudes.

What is the historical context of Pidgin English in Cuba?

It has roots in West Africa and was used by slaves and laborers in the Caribbean.