AP Lang Term List

Allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. An author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

Alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells seashells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for this in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage. 

Allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place,  or work of art. They can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of this.

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. This can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. They can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for this of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example  follows:  

“But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never  absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as  in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted.”  

 The _____ of “it” (bolded) is...? [answer: “all truth”] 

Antithesis

the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.

Aphorism

A terse (abrupt) statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is  unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) This can be a memorable summation of the author’s point. 

Apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional  intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /  England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself:  “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many ____ imply a personification of the object addressed.

Atmosphere

The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the  author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to this. Frequently this foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood. 

Caricature

a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person’s distinctive physical  features or other characteristics. 

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, ____ expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate ______, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must  be accompanied by an independent ______. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author  subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

Colloquial/Colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, these give a work a conversational, familiar tone. These expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.  

Conceit

 A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A _____ displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. These may involve ideas,  emotions, or attitudes.  

Denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the _____ of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.) 

Diction

Related to style, this refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or  effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s _____ (for example, formal or informal,  ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which this can complement the author’s purpose. This, combined with  syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style. 

Didactic

 From the Greek, ______ literally means “teaching.” These words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing,  especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

Euphemism

 From the Greek for “good speech,” these are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally  unpleasant word or concept. These may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of this.

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

Figurative Language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid. 

Figure of Speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. This includes apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

Generic Conventions

This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example,  they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam,  try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama.  However, _____ is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called _____ themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies,  autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy,  comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following _____: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.  There may be fiction or poetry.  

Homily

This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.”)  These often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, these produce irony. The opposite of this is an understatement.  

Imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical  level, this uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and  deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual ____ while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use  complex ______ while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition,  this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates _____ and to the effect of this ______.

Inference/Infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an ______ to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable _______ is the safest answer choice. If an ______ is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not this and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation – negative or positive – of the choices.

Invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part  I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff “this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge  hill of flesh.”)

Irony/Ironic

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. This is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of this used in language:  

 (1) verbal – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) meaning  

(2) situational – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and  readers think ought to happen is not what does happen  

(3) dramatic – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

Litotes

a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its  opposite. This is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain” (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye). 

Loose Sentence/Non-periodic sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause,  the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many of these often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, these create loose style. The opposite of this is the periodic sentence.  

 Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays.   Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.  

Metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other,  suggesting some similarity. This language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and  meaningful.

Metonymy

A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” this is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release  that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using this; Shakespeare uses it to  signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: “doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat.” The  substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.

Mood

The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. This is similar to tone and atmosphere.

Narrative

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

Onomatopeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of this in an essay passage, note the effect.  

Oxymoron

From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” this is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take  note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of this.

Paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....”)

Parallelism

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of  times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of  incredulity....”) The effects of this are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

Anaphora

A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used this in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech (1963). 

Parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It  exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.)  Well-written _____ offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written _____ offers only ineffectual imitation.  Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being ______ in order to fully appreciate the  nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, _______ take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of the original. 

Pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that  might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the sake of using big words).

Periodic Sentence

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This  independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of this type of sentence is to add  emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long,  bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)

Personification

A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. This is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

Point of View

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of this, and  many subdivisions within those.  

(1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator  can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.  

(2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main  subdivisions to be aware of:  

a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of  any or all characters  

b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one  character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.  

In addition, be aware that the term______carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author’s ______, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude. 

Prose

one of the major divisions of genre, this refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In this the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

Repetition

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause,  sentence, or grammatical pattern.

Rhetoric

From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and  persuasively.

Rhetorical Modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The  four most common _______ (often referred to as “modes of discourse”) are as follows:  

(1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,  relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository  topics.  

(2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning,  discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having  an additional aim of urging some form of action.  

(3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader  can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive  writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly  emotional an subjective.  

(4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses  the tools of descriptive writing. 

Sarcasm

From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” this involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, this can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

Satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of  whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, this is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by this: irony, wit, parody, caricature,  hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of this are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but good _____,  often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Some modern writers of this include Joseph  Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat’s Cradle, Player Piano). 

Semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their  connotations, and their relation to one another.

Style

The consideration of this has two purposes:  

(1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other  literary devices. Some authors’ _____ are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author.  We can analyze and describe an author’s personal ______ and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’s  purpose. These can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc.  

(2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification  and comparison, we can see how an author’s ______ reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the  Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist  movement.  

Subject Complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or  completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the  predicate adjective). These are defined below:  

(1) the predicate nominative – a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the  predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.  

Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star.  

movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts  

(2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb.  It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.  

Example: Warren remained optimistic.  

 optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren 

Subordinate Clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or  modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the ______ clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete  thought. Also called a dependent clause, the ________ clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to  complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although,  because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that.  

Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers.  

underlined phrase = _______ clause  

Syllogism

 From the Greek for “reckoning together,” this (or _____ reasoning or _____ logic) is a deductive  system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second called “minor”) that  inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:  

 major premise: All men are mortal.  

 minor premise: Socrates is a man.  

 conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.  

 A ______’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. These may also present the specific idea  first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).

Symbol/Symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually this is something  concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract. However, _____ and ______ can be much more complex. One system classifies ______ into three categories:  

(1) natural ______ are objects and occurrences from nature to ______ ideas commonly associated with them (dawn  ______ hope or a new beginning, a rose ______ love, a tree _______ knowledge).  

(2) conventional ______ are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious _______ such as a cross  or Star of David; national s______, such as a flag or an eagle; or group _______, such as a skull and crossbones for  pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).  

(3) literary ______ are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more  generally recognized. However, a work’s ______ may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness.  On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a ______ for and to what extent it is successful in  representing that abstraction.

Synecdoche

 a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to  represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to the violins, violas, etc.  in an orchestra as “the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is  commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as “the crown” or  the President as “The White House.”

Synthesia

when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes  you itchy. In literature, this refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image.  Red Hot Chili Peppers’ song title,“Taste the Pain,” is an example.

Syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. This is similar to diction, but you can  differentiate them by thinking of this as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates this. In the essay  section, you will need to analyze how this produces effects.  

Theme

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually this is unstated in fictional works, but in  nonfiction, this may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

Thesis

In expository writing, this statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s  opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively,  and thoroughly a writer has proven this.  

Tone

Similar to mood, this describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. This is easier to determine  in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in  identifying an author’s ______. Some words describing this are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal,  ornate, sardonic, somber, etc.  

Transition

A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and  argumentative writing, these effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used ______  words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the  contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of this. 

Understatement

The ironic minimalizing of fact, this presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can  frequently be humorous and emphatic. Thus is the opposite of hyperbole. Example: Jonathan Swift’s A Tale  of a Tub: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.”

Wit

in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A _____ statement is humorous, while  suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. This usually uses terse language that  makes a pointed statement. Historically, this originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed  of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate  an answer that demanded the same quick perception.