Psychology Vocabulary Review

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards based on the key terms and definitions from the lecture notes on psychology.

Empiricism

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation.

Structuralism

Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener that used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

Functionalism

Early school of thought promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin, exploring how mental and behavioral processes function.

Introspection

The process of looking inward to directly observe one's own psychological processes.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study to allow replication.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in-depth to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors from a representative sample.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Population vs. Sample

Population includes all individuals in a group being studied, while a sample is a smaller subset used to represent the whole.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population, where each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing values of two variables, showing the direction of their relationship.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe effects on behavior or mental processes.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both research participants and staff are unaware of treatment status.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations, not by the treatment itself.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the treatment, serving as a comparison for assessing treatment effects.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome that is measured in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence study results.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe group characteristics.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mode / Mean / Median

Mode: The most frequently occurring score. Mean: The arithmetic average. Median: The middle score in a distribution.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of many data types.

Statistical Significance (p-value)

A statistical statement about how likely a result occurred by chance.

Informed Consent

Providing enough information about a study for participants to choose participation.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, explaining its purpose and any deceptions.

Transduction

The process of converting one form of energy into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experiences.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal Detection Theory

Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise.

Subliminal

Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Priming

The activation of certain associations, often unconsciously, predisposing one's perception or memory.

Difference Threshold (JND)

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.

Weber’s Law

The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage to be perceived as different.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Accommodation (Eye)

The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus objects.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye.

Rods vs. Cones

Rods detect black, white, and gray; cones detect fine detail and color.

Optic Nerve

Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Blind Spot

The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, having no receptor cells.

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina where cones cluster.

Feature Detectors

Nerve cells responding to specific features of stimuli like shape or movement.

Parallel Processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors.

Opponent-Process Theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision.

Gestalt

An organized whole, emphasizing the tendency to integrate information into meaningful wholes.

Figure-Ground

The organization of the visual field into distinct objects that stand out.

Grouping Principles

Perceptual tendencies to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

Depth Perception

The ability to see objects in three dimensions, allowing for distance judgment.

Visual Clift

A laboratory device to test depth perception in infants and young animals.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues dependent on the use of two eyes.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues available to either eye alone.

Phi Phenomenon

An illusion of movement created when adjacent lights blink on and off quickly.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging, even as illumination changes.

Color Constancy

Perceiving objects as having consistent color despite changing illumination.

Audition

The sense or act of hearing.

Frequency / Pitch

Frequency: The number of complete wavelengths passing a point in a given time. Pitch: A tone's highness or lowness.

Middle/Cochlea/Inner Ear

Middle: Chamber between eardrum and cochlea. Cochlea: Where transduction happens. Inner: Contains cochlea and semicircular canals.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or auditory nerves.

Conduction Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system conducting sound to the cochlea.

Place Theory

Theory linking pitch we hear with the place where cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

Frequency Theory

Theory that the rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone.

Gate-Control Theory

Theory that the spinal cord contains a 'gate' for pain signals.

Olfaction

The sense of smell.

Kinesthesia

The system for sensing the position and movement of body parts.

Vestibular Sense

The sense of body movement and position, including balance.

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another.